The condition for the transformation of space into place is that the person in that space has the rights to establish and protect this boundary. However, geographies of exclusion typical of American space ideology deprives Afro-American people of this possibility of transformation. Bigger, the native son born of this American ideology, is suffering a kind of virtual and metaphorical hole experience, which finds full expression in the cramp dwelling room and the micro-power network weaved by such value signs as the billboard with a white man, the helicopter hovering overhead and these fancy cars owned by the white. This hole experience brings about a deep-seated fear and horror in Bigger. For him, the only way to relieve himself of the misery is through violence.
Avilez, G. 2008. Housing the black body: Value, domestic space and segregation narratives [J]. African American Review 42(1): 135-48.
Buell, L. 2005. The Future of Environmental Criticism: Environmental Crisis and Literature Imagination [M]. Malden: Blackwell.
Butler, R. 1991. Native Son: The Emergency of a New Black Hero[M]. Boston:Twayne.
Christian, B. 1980. Black Women Novelists: The Development of a Tradition, 1892-1976 [M]. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Dreese, D. N. 2002. Ecocriticism: Creating Self and Place in Environmental and American Indian Literatures [M]. New York: Peter Lang.
Du Bois, W. E. B.1989. The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches [M]. New York: Bantam Classic.
Evernden, N. 1985. The Natural Alien: Humankind and Environment [M]. Toronto: Toronto University Press.Gupta, A. & J. Ferguson. 1992. Beyond “Culture”: Space, identity, and the politics of difference [J]. Cultural Anthropology 7(2): 6-23.
Harvey, D. 1993. From space to place and back again: Reflections on the condition of postmodernity [A]. In J. Bird, B. Curtis, T. Putnam, G. Robertson & L. Tickner (eds.). Mapping the Futures [C]. London: Routledge. 2-29.
Houston, A. B. Jr. 1991. Workings of the Spirit: The Poetics of Afro-American Women's Writing [M]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Howe, I. 1963. Black boys and native sons [J]. Dissent (Autumn): 353-68.
Lynch, K. 1960. The Image of the City [M]. Cambridge: M. I. T. Press.
Olympia, D. 2005. A native son's defense: Bigger Thomas and diminished capacity [J]. Howard Law Journal (Fall): 61-80.
Shiffman, D. 2007. Richard Wright's “12 Million Black Voices” and World War II-era civic nationalism [J]. African American Review 41(Fall): 443-58.
Spretnak, C. 1999. The Resurgence of the Real: Body, Nature, and Place in a Hypermodern World [M]. New York: Routledge.
Soja, E. W. 2000. Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions [M]. Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Wells, I. 2010. “What I killed for, I am”: Domestic terror in Richard Wright's America [J]. American Quarterly 62(4): 873-95.
Wright, K. 2011.Gaining Ground: The Politics of Place and Space in U.S. Women's Literature and U.S. Culture, 1959-2001 [D]. Medford: Tufts University.
Wright, R. 1939. Native Son [M]. New York: Harper.
Wright, R. 1941. 12 Million Black Voices: A Folk History of the Negro in the United States [M]. New York: Viking.
Yi-Fu, Tuan. 1977. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience [M]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Yoon, S. 2006. The Differences Place Makes:Geographies of Subjects, Communities, and Nations in William Faulkner, Toni Morrison, and Chang-rae Lee [D]. Amherst: University of Massachusetts.
加斯东·巴什拉.2009.空间的诗学(张逸倩译)[M].上海:上海译文出版社.
理查德·赖特.2008.土生子(施咸荣译)[M].南京:译林出版社.
赵英男、陈永国.2012.文学内外的空间非场所[J].外国文学研究(4):138-48.
