Toward a Theoretical Framework for Researching Second Language Production

doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8921.2013.12.004

摘要/Abstract

摘要： Various theories have been proposed to account for second language production and the systematic variation characteristic of such production. Most of these theories, however, constitute only partial explanations because they often fail to handle mixed empirical findings about factors held to affect second language output and underlie systematic variation. This paper proposes a new theoretical framework for posing and addressing research questions about second language production in general and systematic variation in particular. Building on influential cognitive models of second language learning and use, the theoretical framework comprises three cognitive dimensions, viz. knowledge representation, attentional focus, and processing automaticity, which interact with each other. The theoretical framework is justified by drawing on the cognitive literature and cumulative findings from second language acquisition (SLA) research. The paper also outlines possible applications of the framework to issues of interest to SLA researchers working on a number of different fronts.

关键词: attention, automaticity, knowledge representation, models of second language learning and use, second language production, systematic variation of second language output INTRODUCTION

GUANGWEI HU. Toward a Theoretical Framework for Researching Second Language Production[J]. 当代外语研究, 2013, 13(12): 31-45.

参考文献

Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., & Steel, D. (1997). Metalinguistic knowledge, language aptitude and language proficiency. Language Teaching Research, 1, 93-121.
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Anderson, J. R. (1995). Learning and memory: An integrated approach. New York: Wiley.
Anderson, J. R. & Fincham, J. M. (1994). Acquisition of procedural skills from examples. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1322-1340.
Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bialystok, E. (1981). The role of linguistic knowledge in second language use. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 4, 31-45.
Bialystok, E. (1982). On the relationship between knowing and using forms. Applied Linguistics, 3, 181-206.
Bialystok, E. (1988). Psycholinguistic dimensions of second language proficiency. In W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Grammar and second language teaching: A book of readings (pp. 31-50). New York: Newbury House.
Bialystok, E. (1990a). Communication strategies: A psychological analysis of second language use. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Bialystok, E. (1990b). The dangers of dichotomy: A reply to Hulstijn. Applied Linguistics, 11, 46-51.
Bialystok, E. (1993). Metalinguistic dimensions of bilingual language proficiency. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children (pp. 113-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bialystok, E. (1994). Analysis and control in the development of second language proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 157-168.
Bialystok, E. & Ryan, E. B. (1985). A metacognitive framework for the development of first and second language skills. In D. L. Forrest-Pressley, G. E. Mackinnon, & T. G. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance: Vol. 1. Theoretical perspectives (pp. 207-252). Orlando: Academic Press.
Cheng, P. W. (1985). Restructuring versus automaticity: Alternative accounts of skill acquisition. Psychological Review, 92, 414-423.
de Bot, K. (1996). The psycholinguistics of the output hypothesis. Language Learning, 46, 529-555.
DeKeyser, R. M. (1997). Beyond explicit rule learning: Automatizing second language morphosyntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 195-221.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313-348). Malden: Blackwell.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2007a). Introduction: Situating the concept of practice. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 1-18). New York: Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2007b). Conclusion: The future of practice. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 287-304). New York: Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. M. & Juffs, A. (2005). Cognitive considerations in L2 learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 437-454). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
DeKeyser, R. M. & Koeth, J. (2011). Cognitive aptitudes for second language learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. 2, pp. 395-406). New York: Routledge.
Dienes, Z. & Perner, J. (1999). A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 735-808.
Elder, C. & Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit knowledge of an L2 and language proficiency. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 167-193). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Elder, C. & Manwaring, D. (2004). The relationship between metalinguistic knowledge and learning outcomes among undergraduate students of Chinese. Language Awareness, 13, 145-162.
Elder, C., Warren, J., Hajek, J., Manwaring, D., & Davies, A. (1999). Metalinguistic knowledge: How important is it in studying a language at university? Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 81-95.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University press.
Ellis, R. (2004). The definition and measurement of L2 explicit knowledge. Language Learning, 54, 227-275.
Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 141-172
Ellis, R. (2009a). Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 3-25). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ellis, R. (2009b). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 31-64). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ellis, R. (2009c). Investigating learning difficulty in terms of implicit and explicit knowledge. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 143-166). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ellis, R. (2009d). Retrospect and prospect. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 335-353). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ellis, R. (2009e). The differential effects of three types of task planning on the fluency, complexity, and accuracy in L2 oral production. Applied Linguistics, 30, 474-509.
Ellis, R. & Yuan, F. (2004). The effects of planning on fluency, complexity, and accuracy in second language narrative writing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 59-84.
Ericsson, K. A. & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (Rev. ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Erlam, R. (2009). The elicited oral imitation test as a measure of implicit knowledge. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 65-93). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Erlam, R., Loewen, S., & Philp, J. (2009). The roles of output-based and input-based instruction in the acquisition of L2 implicit and explicit knowledge. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 241-261). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1986). Cognitive dimensions of language transfer. In E. Kellerman & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in second language acquisition (pp. 49-65). New York: Pergamon.
Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1987). Perspectives on language transfer. Applied Linguistics, 8, 111-136.
Fisk, A. D. & Schneider, W. (1984). Memory as a function of attention, level of processing, and automatization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 10, 181-197.
Foster, P. & Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 299-323.
Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (2006). Input, interaction and output: An overview. AILA Review, 19, 3-17.
Gilabert, R. (2007). Effects of manipulating task complexity on self-repairs during L2 oral production. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 45, 215-240.
Gombert, J. E. (1990). Metalinguistic development. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Green, P. S. & Hecht, K. (1992). Implicit and explicit grammar: An empirical study. Applied Linguistics, 13, 168-184.
Grigg, T. (1986). The effects of task, time and rule knowledge on grammar performance for three English structures. University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL, 5, 37-60.
Housen, A. & Kuiken, F. (2009). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30, 461-473.
Hu, G. (1999). Explicit metalinguistic knowledge at work: The case of spontaneous written production by formal adult Chinese learners of English. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nanyang Technological University, Republic of Singapore.
Hu, G. (2002a). Metalinguistic knowledge at work: The case of written production by Chinese learners of English. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 12, 5-44.
Hu, G. (2002b). Psychological constraints on the utility of metalinguistic knowledge in second language production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 347-386.
Hu, G. (2010). Revisiting the role of metalanguage in L2 teaching and learning. English Australia Journal, 26, 61-70.
Hu, G. (2011a). A place for metalanguage in the L2 classroom. ELT Journal, 65, 180-182.
Hu, G. (2011b). Metalinguistic knowledge, metalanguage, and their relationship in L2 learners. System, 39, 63-77.
Hu, G., Skuja-Steele, R., & Hvitfeldt, R. (2000). Is explicit metalinguistic knowledge useful in L2 production? Paper presented at the International Conference on Language in the Mind? Implications for Research and Education, Fort Canning Lodge, Singapore.
Hulstijn, J. H. (1990). A comparison between the information-processing and the analysis/control approaches to language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 30-45.
Hulstijn, J. H. & Hulstijn, W. (1984). Grammatical errors as a function of processing constraints and explicit knowledge. Language Learning, 34, 23-43.
Izumi, S. & Bigelow, M. (2000). Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition?. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 239-278.
Jiang. N. (2012). Automaticity in a second language: Definition, importance, and assessment. Contemporary Foreign Languages, 384, 34-48.
Johnson, K. (1996). Language teaching and skill learning. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Kahneman, D. & Treisman, A. (1984). Changing views of attention and automaticity. In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 29-61). Orlando: Academic Press.
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1986a). From meta-processes to conscious access: Evidence from children’s metalinguistic and repair data. Cognition, 23, 95-147.
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1986b). Stage/structure versus phase/process in modelling linguistic and cognitive development. In I. Levin (Ed.), Stage and structure: Reopening the debate (pp. 164-190). Norwood: Ablex.
Kohn, K. (1986). The analysis of transfer. In E. Kellerman & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in second language acquisition (pp. 21-34). New York: Pergamon.
Kuiken, F. & Vedder, I. (2007). Cognitive task complexity and linguistic performance in French L2 writing. In M. P. García Mayo (Ed.), Investigating tasks in formal language learning (pp. 117-135). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
LaBerge, D. (1975). Acquisition of automatic processing in perceptual and associative learning. In P. M. A. Rabbit & S. Dornic (Eds.), Attention and performance Ⅴ (pp. 50-64). New York: Academic Press.
Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Adjusting expectations: The study of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30, 579-589.
Leeman, J., Arteagoitia, I., Fridman, B., & Doughty, C. (1995). Integrating attention to form with meaning: Focus on form in content-based Spanish instruction. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 1-63). Honolulu: University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center.
Lehtonen, J. (1990). Foreign language acquisition and the development of automaticity. In H. W. Dechert (Ed.), Current trends in European second language acquisition research (pp. 37-50). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Leow, R. P. (1997). Attention, awareness and foreign language behaviour. Language Learning, 47, 467-505.
Liceras, J. (1987). The role of intake in the determination of learners’ competence. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 354-373). Rowley: Newbury House.
Logan, G. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95, 492-527.
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second-language learning. London: Edward Arnold.
McLaughlin, B. (1990). Restructuring. Applied Linguistics, 11, 113-128.
McLaughlin, B., Rossman, T., & McLeod, B. (1983). Second language learning: An information-processing perspective. Language Learning, 33, 135-158.
McLeod, B. & McLaughlin, B. (1986). Restructuring or automaticity? Reading in a second language. Language Learning, 36, 109-123.
Muranoi, H. (2007). Output practice in the L2 classroom. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 51-84). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Norris, J. M. & Ortega, L. (2009). Towards an organic approach to investigating CAF in instructed SLA: The case of complexity. Applied Linguistics, 30, 555-578.
Odlin, T. (1986). On the nature and use of explicit knowledge. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 24, 123-144.
Ong, J. & Zhang, L.J. (2013). Effects of the manipulation of cognitive processes on EFL writers’ text quality. TESOL Quarterly, 47, 375-398.
Ortega, L. (1999). Planning and focus on form in L2 oral performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 109-148.
Pallotti, G. (2009). CAF: Defining, refining, and differentiating constructs. Applied Linguistics, 30, 590-601.
Philp, J. (2009). Pathways to proficiency: Learning experiences and attainment in implicit and explicit knowledge of English as a second language. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reiders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 194-215). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Posner, M. I. & Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25-42.
Posner, M. I. & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Robinson, P. (1995). Task complexity and second language narrative discourse. Language Learning, 45, 99-140.
Robinson, P. (1997). Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 223-247.
Robinson, P. (2003). Attention and memory during SLA. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 631-378). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Robinson, P. (2005). Cognitive complexity and task sequencing: Studies in a componential framework for second language task design. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 45, 1-32.
Robinson, P., Cadierno, T., & Shirai, Y. (2009). Time and motion: Measuring the effects of the conceptual demands of tasks on second language speech production. Applied Linguistics, 30, 533-554.
Roehr, K. (2007). Metalinguistic knowledge and language ability in university-level L2 learners. Applied Linguistics, 29, 173-199.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158.
Schmidt, R. (1992). Psychological mechanisms underlying second language fluency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 357-385.
Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Segalowitz, N. S. (1986). Skilled reading in the second language. In J. Vaid (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives (pp. 3-19). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Segalowitz, N. S. (2003). Automaticity and second languages. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 382-408). Malden: Blackwell.
Seliger, H. W. (1979). On the nature and function of language rules in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 359-369.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1986). The competence/control model, crosslinguistic influence and the creation of new grammars. In E. Kellerman & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in second language acquisition (pp. 10-20). New York: Pergamon.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 7, 118-132.
Shehadeh, A. (1999). Non-native speakers’ production of modified comprehensible output and second language learning. Language Learning, 49, 627-675.
Shiffrin, R. M. (1976). Capacity limitations in information processing, attention, and memory. In W. K. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes: Vol. 4. Attention and memory (pp. 177-236). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Shiffrin, R. M. & Dumais, S. T. (1981). The development of automatism. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 111-140). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.
Skehan, P. (2009). Modelling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied Linguistics, 30, 510-532.
Skehan, P. & Foster, P. (1999). The influence of task structure and processing conditions on narrative retellings. Language Learning, 49, 93-120.
Sorace, A. (1985). Metalinguistic knowledge and language use in acquisition-poor environments. Applied Linguistics, 6, 239-254.
Stokes, J. D. (1985). Effects of student monitoring of verb inflection in Spanish. The Modern Language Journal, 69, 377-384.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensive input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley: Newbury House.
Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 471-483). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371-391.
Tarone, E. (1988). Variation in interlanguage. London: Edward Arnold.
Towell, R., Hawkins, R., & Bazergui, N. (1996). The development of fluency in advanced learners of French. Applied Linguistics, 17, 84-119.
Wickens, C. D. (1984). Processing resources in attention. In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 63-102). Orlando: Academic Press.
Williams, J. N. (1999). Memory, attention, and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 1-48.
Zietek, A. A. & Roehr, K. (2011). Metalinguistic knowledge and cognitive style in Polish classroom learners of English. System, 39, 417-426.

[1]	LI Zhiqiang, BAO Jinsong, LIU Tianyuan, WANG Jiacheng . Judging the Normativity of PAF Based on TFN and NAN[J]. Journal of Shanghai Jiao Tong University(Science), 2020, 25(5): 569-577.
[2]	ZHU Tao (朱涛), CHENG Chunling (程春玲). Joint CTC-Attention End-to-End Speech Recognition with a Triangle Recurrent Neural Network Encoder[J]. Journal of Shanghai Jiao Tong University (Science), 2020, 25(1): 70-75.
[3]	TANG Qi (唐琪), WANG Ying-lin* (王英林), ZHANG Ming-lu (张明禄) . Ontology-Based Approach for Legal Provision Retrieval[J]. 上海交通大学学报（英文版）, 2012, 17(2): 135-140.
[4]	NIE Gui-hua (聂规划), XU Shang-ying (徐尚英), CHEN Dong-lin (陈冬林). Personalization Method of E-Catalog Based on User Interesting Degree[J]. 上海交通大学学报（英文版）, 2012, 17(2): 215-222.
[5]	. AUTOMATICITY IN A SECOND LANGUAGE:DEFINITION,IMPORTANCE,AND ASSESSMENT[J]. 当代外语研究, 2012, 12(12): 34-48+124.