Insights into Nano- and Micro-Structured Scaffolds for Advanced Electrochemical Energy Storage

doi:10.1007/s40820-024-01341-4

Abstract

Abstract:

Adopting a nano- and micro-structuring approach to fully unleashing the genuine potential of electrode active material benefits in-depth understandings and research progress toward higher energy density electrochemical energy storage devices at all technology readiness levels. Due to various challenging issues, especially limited stability, nano- and micro-structured (NMS) electrodes undergo fast electrochemical performance degradation. The emerging NMS scaffold design is a pivotal aspect of many electrodes as it endows them with both robustness and electrochemical performance enhancement, even though it only occupies complementary and facilitating components for the main mechanism. However, extensive efforts are urgently needed toward optimizing the stereoscopic geometrical design of NMS scaffolds to minimize the volume ratio and maximize their functionality to fulfill the ever-increasing dependency and desire for energy power source supplies. This review will aim at highlighting these NMS scaffold design strategies, summarizing their corresponding strengths and challenges, and thereby outlining the potential solutions to resolve these challenges, design principles, and key perspectives for future research in this field. Therefore, this review will be one of the earliest reviews from this viewpoint.

Key words: Nano- and micro-structured, Interconnected porous, Scaffolds, Electrode design, Electrochemical energy storage

Jiajia Qiu, Yu Duan, Shaoyuan Li, Huaping Zhao, Wenhui Ma, Weidong Shi, Yong Lei. Insights into Nano- and Micro-Structured Scaffolds for Advanced Electrochemical Energy Storage[J]. Nano-Micro Letters, 2024, 16(1): 130-.

Jiajia Qiu, Yu Duan, Shaoyuan Li, Huaping Zhao, Wenhui Ma, Weidong Shi, Yong Lei. [J]. Nano-Micro Letters, 2024, 16(1): 130-.

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URL: https://www.qk.sjtu.edu.cn/nml/EN/10.1007/s40820-024-01341-4

https://www.qk.sjtu.edu.cn/nml/EN/Y2024/V16/I1/130

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References 196

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Electrode materials
3D scaffolds	Active materials	Main techniques	Electrode capacitance (mF cm⁻²)	Peak energy (μWh cm⁻²)	Peak power (mW cm⁻²)	Electrolyte/cell voltage	Lifespan		Refs
SCs based on NMS scaffolds
CNTs/rHGO	FeOOH//MnO₂	Vacuum filtration	6000	1050	17,200		PVA LiCl/1.6 V	90.9% (3000)	[15]
rGO	Ni-Co-O//MnO₂	3D print, Freeze-drying	327(Ni-Co-O)//69(MnO₂)	90	-		PVA KOH/1.3 V	89.9% (10,000)	[95]
Si microtubes	MnO₂	PL, Bosch dry etching, ALD, ED	1500	100	7.1		5 M LiNO₃/1 V	82% (10,000)	[46]
Si microtubes	MnO₂	PL, Bosch dry etching, ALD, ED	1500	60	10		5 M LiNO₃/1 V	84% (10,000)	[46]
Porous GA/COF	-	Freeze-drying, Polycondensation-termination	289 (F g⁻¹)	25.3 (Wh kg⁻¹)	40,000 (W kg⁻¹)		1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	92% (5000)	[100]
Natural wood	Ti₃C₂-Ni	Slicing, Quickly frozen, Freeze-drying	930	23	-		PVA H₂SO₄/0.6 V	87% (5000)	[13]
Wood carbon	MnO₂	Carbonization, ED	4155	1600	24 (W cm⁻²)		PVA LiCl/1.8 V	93% (10,000)	[33]
wood carbon	-	Enzymolysis, Carbonization	8410	210	500		6.0 M KOH/1.0 V	86.58% (15,000)	[83]
rGO framework	MnCO₃	Immerse, LbL, Hydrothermal	320 (F g⁻¹)	-	-		-	77% (5000)	[101]
LSG	MnO₂	Laser scribing, ED	-	42 (Wh L⁻¹)	-		1 M Na₂SO₄/2.0 V	96% (10,000)	[102]
GF-CNT	Fe₂O₃//CoMoO₄	CVD, ALD	370.2(Fe₂O₃)	~ 74.7 (Wh kg⁻¹)	~ 11.2 (kW kg⁻¹)		2 M KOH/1.2 V	95.4% (50,000)	[86]
Graphene aerogel	PPY	3D print, Freeze-drying	2000	110	-		2 M KOH/0.8 V	75% (5000)	[96]
-	Graphene/MWCNT	3D print, Freeze-drying	-	53	1.54		6 M KOH/0.8 V	90% (10,000)	[97]
Graphite foam	NiCo₂O₄//NC	3D print, CVD	~ 3.2 (F cm³)	36.9 (Wh kg⁻¹)	20 (kW kg⁻¹)		PVA KOH/1.6 V	87.8% (10,000)	[103]
3D graphene networks	PANI	Solvothermal self-assembly	188 (F g⁻¹)	-	-		PVA H₂SO₄ HQ/0.8 V	82% (100,000)	[104]
Polymer	rGO	3D print, Freeze-drying, ED	293.4	8	12.56		PVA KOH/1 V	96% (5000)	[16]
MSCs based on NMS scaffolds
Si	GNW/RuO_x	DRIE, MPECVD	-	15.1	2.49 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA H₃PO₄/1 V	90.2% (3000)		[105]
AuNPs	δ-MnO₂	Chemical dealloyed, ED	922 (F cm⁻³)	24.3 (mWh cm⁻³)	295 (W cm⁻³)	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	88% (20,000)		[106]
SnO₂NT	PPY//MnO₂	AAO, ALD, ED	260 (F g⁻¹)//910 (F g⁻¹)	27.2 (Wh kg⁻¹)	24.8 (kW kg⁻¹)	1 M Na₂SO₄/1.7 V	80% (2000)		[107]
Porous Au	RuO₂.xH₂O	HBDT, ED	3250	126	7.9 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA H₃PO₄-H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/0.9 V	95% (2000)		[62]
Porous Au	RuO_xN_yS_z	HBDT, ED	14,300	432 (mJ cm⁻²)	421 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA H₃PO₄-H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/0.9 V	100% (5000)		[39]
PEDOT:PSS	Mxene	3D print, LbL	-	80	3.8	PVA-H₂SO₄/0.8 V	83% (6000)		[108]
Ni nanopore arrays	MnO₂	AAO, ED	570 (F g⁻¹)	-	-	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	83% (3000)		[27]
FTO/AAO	MnO₂	AAO, USP, ED	87.4	1.56 (mWh cm⁻³)	-	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	81.6% (3000)		[98]
FTO/AAO	MnO₂	AAO, USP, ED	540	2.36 (mWh cm⁻³)	4.45 (Wh cm⁻³)	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	85.5% (5000)		[99]
SnO₂/AAO	PPY//MnO₂	AAO, ALD, ED	-	160	40 (mW cm⁻²)	EMIM-TFSI/3 V	82.5% (10,000)		[18]
Exfoliated graphite	PPY/MoO_x//Na_0.5MnO₂	Electrochemical exfoliation, ED, LbL	398 (F g⁻¹)	72.7 (Wh kg⁻¹)	343 (W kg⁻¹)	5 M LiCl/2.2 V	92.3% (10,000)		[109]
CuSe	Ni(OH)₂	ED		5.4 (mWh cm⁻³)	833.2 (mW cm⁻³)	PVA LiCl/1 V	100% (10,000)		[110]
CNW	Hydrous-RuO₂	PECVD, ED	1094	49	31.3	PVA H₃PO₄-H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/0.9 V	~ 90% (2000)		[111]
GNW	Ni(OH)₂	MPECVD, EB, Electrochemical oxidation	33.6	2.1 (mWh cm⁻³)	5.91 (W cm⁻³)	-	96% (2000)		[112]
Porous carbon	-	MIL, ALD		3.61	1.3	PVA/H₃PO₄ /1 V	97% (30,000)		[113]
GF	PPY	Laser induction	2412.2	134.4	6.5	PVA H₂SO₄/1.3 V	95.6% (10,000)		[114]
Au pillars	GMP	Inkjet print, LbL	10	~ 1	-	PVA H₂SO₄/0.8 V	80% (2000)		[115]
Graphene aerogel	MnO₂	3D print, ED	44,130	1560	-	3 M LiCl/2.2 V	92.9% (20,000)		[116]
Mxene-AgNW-MnONW-C₆₀	-	3D print, LbL, Unidirectional freezing, Freeze-drying	-	19.2	58.3 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA KOH	-		[14]

Electrode materials
3D scaffolds	Active materials	Main techniques	Electrode capacitance (mF cm⁻²)	Peak energy (μWh cm⁻²)	Peak power (mW cm⁻²)	Electrolyte/cell voltage	Lifespan		Refs
SCs based on NMS scaffolds
CNTs/rHGO	FeOOH//MnO₂	Vacuum filtration	6000	1050	17,200		PVA LiCl/1.6 V	90.9% (3000)	[15]
rGO	Ni-Co-O//MnO₂	3D print, Freeze-drying	327(Ni-Co-O)//69(MnO₂)	90	-		PVA KOH/1.3 V	89.9% (10,000)	[95]
Si microtubes	MnO₂	PL, Bosch dry etching, ALD, ED	1500	100	7.1		5 M LiNO₃/1 V	82% (10,000)	[46]
Si microtubes	MnO₂	PL, Bosch dry etching, ALD, ED	1500	60	10		5 M LiNO₃/1 V	84% (10,000)	[46]
Porous GA/COF	-	Freeze-drying, Polycondensation-termination	289 (F g⁻¹)	25.3 (Wh kg⁻¹)	40,000 (W kg⁻¹)		1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	92% (5000)	[100]
Natural wood	Ti₃C₂-Ni	Slicing, Quickly frozen, Freeze-drying	930	23	-		PVA H₂SO₄/0.6 V	87% (5000)	[13]
Wood carbon	MnO₂	Carbonization, ED	4155	1600	24 (W cm⁻²)		PVA LiCl/1.8 V	93% (10,000)	[33]
wood carbon	-	Enzymolysis, Carbonization	8410	210	500		6.0 M KOH/1.0 V	86.58% (15,000)	[83]
rGO framework	MnCO₃	Immerse, LbL, Hydrothermal	320 (F g⁻¹)	-	-		-	77% (5000)	[101]
LSG	MnO₂	Laser scribing, ED	-	42 (Wh L⁻¹)	-		1 M Na₂SO₄/2.0 V	96% (10,000)	[102]
GF-CNT	Fe₂O₃//CoMoO₄	CVD, ALD	370.2(Fe₂O₃)	~ 74.7 (Wh kg⁻¹)	~ 11.2 (kW kg⁻¹)		2 M KOH/1.2 V	95.4% (50,000)	[86]
Graphene aerogel	PPY	3D print, Freeze-drying	2000	110	-		2 M KOH/0.8 V	75% (5000)	[96]
-	Graphene/MWCNT	3D print, Freeze-drying	-	53	1.54		6 M KOH/0.8 V	90% (10,000)	[97]
Graphite foam	NiCo₂O₄//NC	3D print, CVD	~ 3.2 (F cm³)	36.9 (Wh kg⁻¹)	20 (kW kg⁻¹)		PVA KOH/1.6 V	87.8% (10,000)	[103]
3D graphene networks	PANI	Solvothermal self-assembly	188 (F g⁻¹)	-	-		PVA H₂SO₄ HQ/0.8 V	82% (100,000)	[104]
Polymer	rGO	3D print, Freeze-drying, ED	293.4	8	12.56		PVA KOH/1 V	96% (5000)	[16]
MSCs based on NMS scaffolds
Si	GNW/RuO_x	DRIE, MPECVD	-	15.1	2.49 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA H₃PO₄/1 V	90.2% (3000)		[105]
AuNPs	δ-MnO₂	Chemical dealloyed, ED	922 (F cm⁻³)	24.3 (mWh cm⁻³)	295 (W cm⁻³)	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	88% (20,000)		[106]
SnO₂NT	PPY//MnO₂	AAO, ALD, ED	260 (F g⁻¹)//910 (F g⁻¹)	27.2 (Wh kg⁻¹)	24.8 (kW kg⁻¹)	1 M Na₂SO₄/1.7 V	80% (2000)		[107]
Porous Au	RuO₂.xH₂O	HBDT, ED	3250	126	7.9 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA H₃PO₄-H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/0.9 V	95% (2000)		[62]
Porous Au	RuO_xN_yS_z	HBDT, ED	14,300	432 (mJ cm⁻²)	421 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA H₃PO₄-H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/0.9 V	100% (5000)		[39]
PEDOT:PSS	Mxene	3D print, LbL	-	80	3.8	PVA-H₂SO₄/0.8 V	83% (6000)		[108]
Ni nanopore arrays	MnO₂	AAO, ED	570 (F g⁻¹)	-	-	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	83% (3000)		[27]
FTO/AAO	MnO₂	AAO, USP, ED	87.4	1.56 (mWh cm⁻³)	-	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	81.6% (3000)		[98]
FTO/AAO	MnO₂	AAO, USP, ED	540	2.36 (mWh cm⁻³)	4.45 (Wh cm⁻³)	1 M Na₂SO₄/0.8 V	85.5% (5000)		[99]
SnO₂/AAO	PPY//MnO₂	AAO, ALD, ED	-	160	40 (mW cm⁻²)	EMIM-TFSI/3 V	82.5% (10,000)		[18]
Exfoliated graphite	PPY/MoO_x//Na_0.5MnO₂	Electrochemical exfoliation, ED, LbL	398 (F g⁻¹)	72.7 (Wh kg⁻¹)	343 (W kg⁻¹)	5 M LiCl/2.2 V	92.3% (10,000)		[109]
CuSe	Ni(OH)₂	ED		5.4 (mWh cm⁻³)	833.2 (mW cm⁻³)	PVA LiCl/1 V	100% (10,000)		[110]
CNW	Hydrous-RuO₂	PECVD, ED	1094	49	31.3	PVA H₃PO₄-H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀/0.9 V	~ 90% (2000)		[111]
GNW	Ni(OH)₂	MPECVD, EB, Electrochemical oxidation	33.6	2.1 (mWh cm⁻³)	5.91 (W cm⁻³)	-	96% (2000)		[112]
Porous carbon	-	MIL, ALD		3.61	1.3	PVA/H₃PO₄ /1 V	97% (30,000)		[113]
GF	PPY	Laser induction	2412.2	134.4	6.5	PVA H₂SO₄/1.3 V	95.6% (10,000)		[114]
Au pillars	GMP	Inkjet print, LbL	10	~ 1	-	PVA H₂SO₄/0.8 V	80% (2000)		[115]
Graphene aerogel	MnO₂	3D print, ED	44,130	1560	-	3 M LiCl/2.2 V	92.9% (20,000)		[116]
Mxene-AgNW-MnONW-C₆₀	-	3D print, LbL, Unidirectional freezing, Freeze-drying	-	19.2	58.3 (mW cm⁻²)	PVA KOH	-		[14]

Electrode materials
3D scaffolds	Active materials	Main techniques	Capacity (mAh cm⁻²)	Peak energy (mWh cm⁻²)	Peak power (mW cm⁻²)	Electrolyte	Lifespan	Refs
Bs based on NMS scaffolds
Porous carbon	ZnFe₂O₄	Carbonization	711 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	≈100% (400)	[122]
Porous Cu-Zn	-	HBDT, ED	≈300 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	83.3% (500)	[94]
Carbon fibers	LiNi_0.5Mn_0.3Co_0.2O₂	CVD	1500	≈380 (Wh kg⁻¹)	-	LiPF₆/EC/EMC	90.4% (500)	[87]
CNTs/CNFs	LFP//LTO	3D print, Freeze-drying,	8.4	15.2	75.9	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	84% (10,000)	[42]
Porous carbon	LFP//Ge-N	PS template	942 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC/VC	90% (200)	[123]
CB/CNF network	LFP	Self-assembly, Freeze-drying	8.8	538 (Wh L⁻¹)	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	91% (150)	[120]
NPC	-	Self-template	-	-	-	KPF₆/EC/DEC	-	[15]
3D graphene	Fe₂O₃	Self-assembly, Freeze-drying, Ostwald ripening	-	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DMC	-	[124]
3D Ti₃C₂T_x	LFP//Ga-In	Self-assembly	132 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC/FEC	90.2% (150)	[125]
3D porous Bi	Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃//3D porous Bi	Liquid phase reduction	306 (mAh g⁻¹)	116 (Wh kg⁻¹)	-	Na₂O	-	[126]
3D MXene	V₂O₅	Ice template	-	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	-	[127]
3D honeycomb-like carbon grafted	PB// 3D honeycomb-like carbon grafted	Freeze-drying, Carbonization	-	113 (Wh kg⁻¹)	-	KFSI/DME	-	[128]
Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃	Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃//Hard carbon	Phase separation	90 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	NaClO₄/EC/DEC/FEC	99% (100)	[129]
Vertically aligned graphene	LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂//Red-phosphorus	Silica template, Coassembly	5.6	405 (Wh kg⁻¹)	1224 (W kg⁻¹)	LiPF₆/EC/DMC/FEC	76.6% (300)	[130]
AIMBs based on NMS scaffolds
Nanoporous Au	K_xMnO₂·nH₂O//K_xV₂O₅·nH₂O	Chemically dealloying, ED	~ 64 (mAh cm⁻³)	~ 103 (mWh cm⁻³)	~ 600 (W cm⁻³)	0.5 M K₂SO₄	80% (10,000)	[121]
Porous Ni	LiMnO₂//Sn	3D HL, PL	-	6.5 (μWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	3600 (μW cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	LiClO₄/EC/DEC	80% (100)	[29]
Porous Ni	V₂O₅//Li	ILP, Self-assembly, ED	-	1.242 (J cm⁻²)	75.5	PEO/LiTFSI/DOL/DME	75% (200)
Porous Ni	PIN	PL, ED, Hydrothermal	-	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	-	[131]
Porous Ni	LiMnO₂//Sn	3D HL, PL	-	15 (mWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	7.4 (mW cm⁻³ μm⁻¹)	LiClO₄/EC/DEC	64% (15)	[132]
Porous Ni	Ni(OH)₂//Zn	Colloidal templating, ED, facile anodizing	150.1 (μAh cm⁻²)	0.26	33.8	PVA-KOH/ZnO	74.6% (1800)	[133]
3D Ni₅P₄ nanofoams	Li	Virus-template	677 (mAh cm⁻³)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	80% (100)	[134]
Porous Ni	MnO₂	PL, PS template, ED	-	45.5 (mWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	5300 (μW cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	LiClO₄/EC/DMC	-	[135]
AAO	V₂O₅	AAO, ALD	-	0.6 (μWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	0.49 (μW cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	81% (1000)	[28]
Porous Ni	NH₄CuHCF-PEDOT//Zn	ED, Coating	-	0.31	80.83	(HN₄)₂SO₄/Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂	-	[136]
Porous Ni	NH₄CuHCF-PEDOT//Zn	ED, Coating	-	0.33	83.12	(HN₄)₂SO₄/CuSO₄/guar gum	94% (1000)	[136]

Electrode materials
3D scaffolds	Active materials	Main techniques	Capacity (mAh cm⁻²)	Peak energy (mWh cm⁻²)	Peak power (mW cm⁻²)	Electrolyte	Lifespan	Refs
Bs based on NMS scaffolds
Porous carbon	ZnFe₂O₄	Carbonization	711 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	≈100% (400)	[122]
Porous Cu-Zn	-	HBDT, ED	≈300 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	83.3% (500)	[94]
Carbon fibers	LiNi_0.5Mn_0.3Co_0.2O₂	CVD	1500	≈380 (Wh kg⁻¹)	-	LiPF₆/EC/EMC	90.4% (500)	[87]
CNTs/CNFs	LFP//LTO	3D print, Freeze-drying,	8.4	15.2	75.9	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	84% (10,000)	[42]
Porous carbon	LFP//Ge-N	PS template	942 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC/VC	90% (200)	[123]
CB/CNF network	LFP	Self-assembly, Freeze-drying	8.8	538 (Wh L⁻¹)	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	91% (150)	[120]
NPC	-	Self-template	-	-	-	KPF₆/EC/DEC	-	[15]
3D graphene	Fe₂O₃	Self-assembly, Freeze-drying, Ostwald ripening	-	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DMC	-	[124]
3D Ti₃C₂T_x	LFP//Ga-In	Self-assembly	132 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC/FEC	90.2% (150)	[125]
3D porous Bi	Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃//3D porous Bi	Liquid phase reduction	306 (mAh g⁻¹)	116 (Wh kg⁻¹)	-	Na₂O	-	[126]
3D MXene	V₂O₅	Ice template	-	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	-	[127]
3D honeycomb-like carbon grafted	PB// 3D honeycomb-like carbon grafted	Freeze-drying, Carbonization	-	113 (Wh kg⁻¹)	-	KFSI/DME	-	[128]
Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃	Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃//Hard carbon	Phase separation	90 (mAh g⁻¹)	-	-	NaClO₄/EC/DEC/FEC	99% (100)	[129]
Vertically aligned graphene	LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂//Red-phosphorus	Silica template, Coassembly	5.6	405 (Wh kg⁻¹)	1224 (W kg⁻¹)	LiPF₆/EC/DMC/FEC	76.6% (300)	[130]
AIMBs based on NMS scaffolds
Nanoporous Au	K_xMnO₂·nH₂O//K_xV₂O₅·nH₂O	Chemically dealloying, ED	~ 64 (mAh cm⁻³)	~ 103 (mWh cm⁻³)	~ 600 (W cm⁻³)	0.5 M K₂SO₄	80% (10,000)	[121]
Porous Ni	LiMnO₂//Sn	3D HL, PL	-	6.5 (μWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	3600 (μW cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	LiClO₄/EC/DEC	80% (100)	[29]
Porous Ni	V₂O₅//Li	ILP, Self-assembly, ED	-	1.242 (J cm⁻²)	75.5	PEO/LiTFSI/DOL/DME	75% (200)
Porous Ni	PIN	PL, ED, Hydrothermal	-	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	-	[131]
Porous Ni	LiMnO₂//Sn	3D HL, PL	-	15 (mWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	7.4 (mW cm⁻³ μm⁻¹)	LiClO₄/EC/DEC	64% (15)	[132]
Porous Ni	Ni(OH)₂//Zn	Colloidal templating, ED, facile anodizing	150.1 (μAh cm⁻²)	0.26	33.8	PVA-KOH/ZnO	74.6% (1800)	[133]
3D Ni₅P₄ nanofoams	Li	Virus-template	677 (mAh cm⁻³)	-	-	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	80% (100)	[134]
Porous Ni	MnO₂	PL, PS template, ED	-	45.5 (mWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	5300 (μW cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	LiClO₄/EC/DMC	-	[135]
AAO	V₂O₅	AAO, ALD	-	0.6 (μWh cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	0.49 (μW cm⁻² μm⁻¹)	LiPF₆/EC/DEC	81% (1000)	[28]
Porous Ni	NH₄CuHCF-PEDOT//Zn	ED, Coating	-	0.31	80.83	(HN₄)₂SO₄/Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂	-	[136]
Porous Ni	NH₄CuHCF-PEDOT//Zn	ED, Coating	-	0.33	83.12	(HN₄)₂SO₄/CuSO₄/guar gum	94% (1000)	[136]

Functionality	Anode metal	Scaffolds	Main techniques	Half cells (current density (mA cm⁻²), areal capacity (mAh cm⁻²), cycle umber)	Symmetric cell (current density (mA cm⁻²), areal capacity (mAh cm⁻²), life span (h))	Full cells (cathode, rate performance, and life span)	Refs
Current collector	Li	MIEC garnet	Scalable tape-casting process	-	1, 1, 50 & 5, 5, 50	NMC622, 1C, 500 cycles	[63]
	Li	Cu-coated carbon fabrics	Polymer-assisted metal deposition	1, 3.5, 90	1, 2, 500	NSHG/S₈/NiCF, 1 (mA cm⁻²), 260 cycles	[151]
	Li	Cu/Ni core-shell network	Hydrothermal and sintering	2, 1, 100	3, 1, 208.3	LiCoO₂, 1C, 200 cycles	[152]
	Li	3D Cu&CuAu_x matrix	High energy heavy iontracking	-	1, 1, 2160	LiFePO₄,10 C, 200 cycles	[153]
	Li	3D porous CuZn	Dealloying	0.5, 0.5, > 800	0.5,1, > 500	NCM811, 1 C, 500 cycles	[154]
	Li	3D printed porous Cu	3D printing	1, 5, > 450	1, 2.5, 450	-	[155]
	Li	P-Cu@Cu₆Sn₅	Electroless plating	1, 1, 325	1, 1, > 1000	LiFePO₄, 1 C, 600 cycles	[156]
	Zn	3D Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets	Freeze-drying	5, -, 150	1, 1, 1500	VO₂, 5 A g-1, 1000 cycles	[43]
	Zn	3D Ti-TiO₂	Template-free electrodeposition and vapor dealloying	5, 1, 120	1, 1, 2000	S-MXene@MnO₂, 5 (A g⁻¹), 500 cycles	[157]
	Zn	3DCEP-MXene	3D cold-trap environment printing	1, -, 450	0.25, 0.1, 1400	3DCEP-MXene/Co-MnHCF, 0.9 C, 1600 cycles	[158]
	Na	3DHS with Mg clusters	Solution mixed and carbonization	-	0.5, 1, 450	FeS₂, 0.5, 50 cycles	[159]
	Na	3D Zn@Al	Magnetron sputtering	0.5, 0.5, 1200	2, 1, 1500	NVP, 5 C, 2000 cycles	[72]
	Na	SnO₂-CNFs	Carbonizing PAN nanofibers and magnetron sputtering	3, 3, 1500	1, 1, 3000	NVP@C@CNTs, 1 C, 130 cycles	[41]
	K	Co/NOC/CNM	Solution mixed annealing	0.5, 0.5, 110	1, 1, 1000	PTCDA, 10 C, 100 cycles	[160]
Current collector & SEI layer	Li	g-C₃N₄/graphene/g-C₃N₄	3D self-assembly and in-situ calcination	1, 1, 500	-	LiFePO₄, 0.3 C, 180 cycles	[40]
	Li	3D Cu₂S NWs-Cu foam	Anodizing and sulfuration	1, 1, 500	-	LiFePO₄, 0.5 C, 300 cycles	[161]
SEI layer	Li	SNGO	Hydrothermal and 3D printing	-	1, 1, 450	NCM811, 0.5 C, 100 cycles	[20]
	Li	NiFx@NF	One-step fluorination	1, 1, 450	1, 1, 1300	LiFePO₄, 2 C, 500 cycles	[162]
	Li	ZnO-PAN-ZnO skeletons	Electrostatic spinning	0.5, 1, 120	3, 1, 200	LiFePO₄, 1 C, 200 cycles	[163]
	Li	LiF-rich 3DSF	Toroidal magnetic field	1, 1, 100	1, 1, 1700	LiFePO₄, 1 C, 150 cycles	[164]

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