Innovative Solutions for High-Performance Silicon Anodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Overcoming Challenges and Real-World Applications

doi:10.1007/s40820-024-01388-3

Abstract
Figure/Table
References
Related Citation (3)

Download: PDF (6519 KB) HTML (0 KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)

Abstract

Silicon (Si) has emerged as a potent anode material for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), but faces challenges like low electrical conductivity and significant volume changes during lithiation/delithiation, leading to material pulverization and capacity degradation. Recent research on nanostructured Si aims to mitigate volume expansion and enhance electrochemical performance, yet still grapples with issues like pulverization, unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) growth, and interparticle resistance. This review delves into innovative strategies for optimizing Si anodes’ electrochemical performance via structural engineering, focusing on the synthesis of Si/C composites, engineering multidimensional nanostructures, and applying non-carbonaceous coatings. Forming a stable SEI is vital to prevent electrolyte decomposition and enhance Li⁺ transport, thereby stabilizing the Si anode interface and boosting cycling Coulombic efficiency. We also examine groundbreaking advancements such as self-healing polymers and advanced prelithiation methods to improve initial Coulombic efficiency and combat capacity loss. Our review uniquely provides a detailed examination of these strategies in real-world applications, moving beyond theoretical discussions. It offers a critical analysis of these approaches in terms of performance enhancement, scalability, and commercial feasibility. In conclusion, this review presents a comprehensive view and a forward-looking perspective on designing robust, high-performance Si-based anodes the next generation of LIBs.

Key words： Silicon anode Energy storage Nanostructure Prelithiation Binder

Received: 30 December 2023 Published: 24 April 2024

Corresponding Authors: Suxia Yan, Junfeng Liu, Yong Wang

	Service

	E-mail this article
	Add to my bookshelf
	Add to citation manager
	E-mail Alert
	RSS
	Articles by authors
	Mustafa Khan
	Suxia Yan
	Mujahid Ali
	Faisal Mahmood
	Yang Zheng
	Guochun Li
	Junfeng Liu
	Xiaohui Song
	Yong Wang

Cite this article:

Mustafa Khan,Suxia Yan,Mujahid Ali, et al. Innovative Solutions for High-Performance Silicon Anodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Overcoming Challenges and Real-World Applications[J]. Nano-Micro Letters, 2024, 16(1): 179-.

URL:

https://www.qk.sjtu.edu.cn/nml/EN/10.1007/s40820-024-01388-3 OR https://www.qk.sjtu.edu.cn/nml/EN/Y2024/V16/I1/179

Fig. 1 A schematic diagram illustrating the strategies for addressing the multifaceted challenges inherent to Si-based anodes in LIBs

Table 1

Electrochemical properties of several materials used as anode in LIBs

Table 2

Theoretical capacity and volume variation of different phases of Li-Si

Fig. 2 Degradation Mechanisms of Si Anode—a Demonstrates the fracture and pulverization of Si electrode materials as a key challenge, b addresses lithiation retardation due to compressive stress, which reduces rate performance and lowers the effective capacity, and c shows how large volume changes during operation can induce unstable SEI growth on the electrode surface. Each panel offers a focused examination of these mechanisms, presenting critical insights into the durability and performance of Si-based anode materials. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b26">26</xref>]. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature

Fig. 3 Chain-like Si CNTs (C-L-SC) Preparation and Evaluation—a Schematic illustration of the preparation process for chain-like Si CNTs (C-L-SC). SEM images showcasing b the morphology of pure Si, c Si encapsulated in carbon nanotubes (Si@CNTs), d, e Si@CNTs after ZIF-67 incorporation (Si@CNTs-ZIF-67), and f, g the final chain-like Si CNTs structure (C-L-SC). h Compares the cycling performances of pure Si, Si@CNTs, C-ZIF-67, and C-L-SC electrodes, demonstrating the enhanced durability and capacity retention of C-L-SC. i Rate capability tests for pure Si, Si@CNTs, and C-L-SC electrodes, highlighting the improved performance of C-L-SC under various current densities. SEM images of C-L-SC electrode j before and k after 100 cycles at 0.5 A g−1, illustrating the structural integrity and stability of C-L-SC over extended cycling. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b42">42</xref>]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature

Fig. 4 Fabrication and Analysis of Si/CNF/rGO Composite Films—a Illustration of the preparation process for Si/CNF/rGO and Si/rGO composite films, outlining the steps taken to synthesize these materials. SEM images of b, c the Si/rGO and Si:CNF/rGO = 1:1 composites, respectively, showing the morphology and distribution of materials within the composites. TEM images of d, e similarly showcase the microstructure of Si/rGO and Si:CNF/rGO = 1:1 composites, providing a closer look at the nanoscale interactions and structure. f Cycling performances of the synthesized Si/rGO and Si/CNF/rGO composites at ratios of 1:1, 2:3, and 3:2, evaluated at a current density of 0.1 A g−1, highlighting their electrochemical stability and capacity retention over cycles. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b46">46</xref>]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature

Fig. 5 RF Plasma-Enhanced Fabrication of GNWs@Si Composites and Their Electrochemical Evaluation in LIBs—a Schematic diagram of the radio-frequency plasma-enhanced horizontal tube furnace deposition system. b Schematic images depicting the growth of graphene nanowalls (GNWs) on Ni foam. c Schematic representation of GNWs@Si composite preparation on Ni foam. d Actual image of the radio-frequency plasma-enhanced horizontal tube furnace deposition system. e SEM images showcasing the morphology of GNWs. f SEM images of GNWs@Si composite, illustrating the composite’s detailed structure. g Voltage profiles of LIBs based on GNWs@Si composite at varying current densities from 190 to 9510 mA g−1. h Galvanostatic charge-discharge capacity of the same, depicting the performance across different rates. Reproduced with the permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b52">52</xref>]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier

Fig. 6 Preparation and Electrochemical Performance of Si-G/C Composite for High-Energy-Density Batteries—a Schematic preparation procedure of the Si-G/C composite, illustrating the step-by-step synthesis process. b Typical TEM profiles of nano-Si, providing insights into the nanostructure of the silicon used in the composite. c SEM images of the Si-G/C composite, highlighting the microstructural integration of silicon with graphene/carbon. d Cycling performance of the Si-G/C composite in prototype full-cell high-energy-density batteries, demonstrating stability and capacity retention over 1200 cycles at a charge/discharge rate of 0.5 C. Reproduced with the permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b59">59</xref>]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of Chemistry

Table 3

Cycle stabilities of various Si/C- based anodes for LIBs

Fig. 7 Synthesis and Electrochemical Evaluation of Cu2MoS4/SiNS Composite for Anode Material—a Illustrates the synthetic strategy process for creating Cu2MoS4/SiNS through the self-assembly of composite porous Si nanospheres with Cu2MoS4, detailing the steps involved in the composite formation. b SEM image showing the morphology of the self-assembled Cu2MoS4/SiNS anode material, highlighting the microstructural characteristics. c TEM images of the Cu2MoS4/SiNS composite, providing a closer look at the nanostructure of the composite material. d Cycling performance of Cu2MoS4/SiNS demonstrated over 400 cycles at a current density of 2.0 A g−1, showcasing the material's durability and electrochemical stability. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b90">90</xref>]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society

Fig. 8 Synthesis and Performance of Si@NC Nanotube Composite—a Schematic illustration of the synthesis process for the Si@NC nanotube composite, detailing the steps involved in creating this advanced material. b SEM image showcases the Si@NC nanotube, highlighting its unique morphology and structure. c Long-term cycling capability of the Si@NC nanotube composite, evidencing its robustness and potential for use in energy storage applications. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b97">97</xref>]. Copyright 2022, Wiley Online Library

Fig. 9 Fabrication and Analysis of Hollow Si Nanospheres for Energy Storage Applications—a Synthesis process for hollow Si spheres, beginning with the coating of Si nanoparticles on a stainless-steel substrate, followed by CVD deposition of Si, and concluding with the removal of the SiO2 core via HF etching to achieve the hollow structure. b Typical cross-sectional SEM image of the hollow Si nanospheres, illustrating the uniformity and integrity of the hollow structures. c SEM side view of the same sample, offering a different perspective on the morphology. d SEM image of hollow Si nanospheres that have been scraped open with a sharp razor blade, revealing the interior empty space and confirming the hollow nature. e TEM image of interconnected hollow Si spheres, highlighting their potential for enhanced electrochemical performance through structural connectivity. f GCD profiles at a rate of 0.5 C, noting that the first cycle was performed at 0.1 C to establish baseline performance. g Compares the reversible Li discharge capacity and Coulombic efficiency (CE) of the hollow Si nanospheres against the theoretical capacity of graphite, demonstrating the superior performance and potential of hollow Si nanospheres in energy storage devices. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b108">108</xref>]. Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society

Table 4

Cycle stabilities of various composites anodes comprised of different Si and carbon materials for LIBs

Fig. 10 Development of a Gyroid 3D Network of Si@SiOx/C for Anode Applications—a Schematic illustration of the synthetic route to fabricate the 3D-Si@SiOx/C structure via one-pot magnetoisothermic reduction and carbonization of KIT-6, incorporating the polymer template for structure formation. b TEM image of the highly ordered double-gyroid KIT-6 including the polymer template, with a high-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM (HAADF-STEM) image shown in the inset, demonstrating the intricate gyroid structure and its uniformity. c, d TEM images of the 3D-Si@SiOx/C network, with c providing a broader view of the structure and d a high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image highlighting the detailed crystalline structure. Scale bars are 20 nm for (b, including inset) and (c), and 5 nm for (d). e Galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) profiles of the 3D-Si@SiOx/C and Si nanoparticle (NP) anodes, showing the electrochemical performance comparison. f Cycling performances and Coulombic efficiencies (CEs) of the 3D-Si@SiOx/C and Si NP anodes at a current density of 200 mA g−1, indicating the enhanced durability and efficiency of the 3D-Si@SiOx/C structure. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b130">130</xref>]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society

Fig. 11 Formation and Evaluation of Si@SnO2 Core-Shell Heterostructures for Lithium-Ion Batteries—a Illustrates the process in which Si hollow nanospheres and SnO2 nanowires undergo sonication in tetrahydrofuran (THF), resulting in their spontaneous assembly through van der Waals interactions to form Si@SnO2 core-shell heterostructures. This combination leverages the properties of both materials to enhance lithium and electron transport. b SEM images provide a detailed view of the Si@SnO2 core-shell structures, showcasing the uniformity and quality of the heterostructures. c Cycle behaviors of Si@SnO2 core-shell heterostructures, Si hollow nanospheres, and SnO2 nanowires at a current density of 500 mA g−1, highlighting the superior cycling stability of the core-shell structures. d Nyquist plots illustrate the electrochemical impedance of the Si@SnO2 core-shell heterostructures, Si hollow nanospheres, and SnO2 nanowires, offering insights into the improved ionic and electronic conductivities of the core-shell configuration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b139">139</xref>]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society

Table 5

Electrochemical capabilities of Si with other materials as anode for LIBs

Fig. 12 Solvent-Induced Selective Dissolution for SEI Optimization in Si Anodes—a Schematic representation of the solvent-induced selective dissolution process for solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layers, highlighting how SEI components are differentiated based on their solubility in various solvents. This technique aims to refine SEI composition for improved anode performance. b Cycling performance and Coulombic efficiencies (CEs) of micron-sized Si anodes tested in different electrolytes at a charge/discharge rate of 0.2 C, where 1 C equals 3000 mA g−1, illustrating the impact of electrolyte choice on anode durability and efficiency. c Similar data for Si@C (silicon-carbon composite) anodes in varied electrolytes at 0.2 C, demonstrating the role of SEI optimization in enhancing the electrochemical performance of composite anodes. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b155">155</xref>]. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature

Fig. 13 Fabrication and Characterization of ASEI-Modified FeSi/C Anode for Enhanced Cycling Stability—a Fabrication process for the ASEI-modified FeSi/C anode, detailing the steps involved in creating the advanced sulfur-adsorbed electrode interface. b SEM and c HRTEM images of the pristine FeSi/C composite exhibit the initial microstructure and crystallinity. d SEM and e HRTEM images post sulfur adsorption on the FeSi/C composite showcase modifications in the surface and structural properties aimed at improving electrochemical performance. f Cycling stability and Coulombic efficiencies (CEs) of the ASEI-modified FeSi/C composite at a current density of 500 mA g−1, highlighting its enhanced durability and efficiency in battery applications. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b157">157</xref>]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature

Fig. 14 Interaction of Si NPs with Melted Li and Electrochemical Performance of LixSi-Li2O Nanoparticles—a Schematic diagrams illustrate the reaction of silicon nanoparticles (Si NPs) with melted lithium (Li) to form lithium silicide (LixSi) nanoparticles, depicting the initial step in creating advanced anode materials. b Galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) profiles for LixSi-Li2O nanoparticles during the first and second cycles, indicating the electrochemical behavior and capacity retention. c Cycling performance of LixSi-Li2O nanoparticles, Si NPs/LixSi-Li2O composite, and control Si nanoparticles at a rate of C/20, with the purple line representing the Coulombic efficiency (CE) of the Si NPs/LixSi-Li2O composite, demonstrating the enhanced performance of the composite material. d Cycling performance of mesocarbon microbead (MCMB)/LixSi-Li2O composites with varying weight ratios, tested at C/20 for the first three cycles and C/5 for subsequent cycles (1 C = 0.372 A g−1, with capacity based on the total mass of active materials, including MCMB and Si in LixSi-Li2O nanoparticles). The purple line indicates the CE of the MCMB/LixSi-Li2O composite (80:10 by weight), highlighting the composite’s improved cycling stability. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b163">163</xref>]. Copyright 2017, Springer Nature

Fig. 15 Evaluation of EVA Colloid in Electrolyte for Enhanced Anode Performance—a Depicts the schematic illustration of the ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) colloid structure immersion process in the electrolyte, highlighting the preparation steps for modifying the electrode’s surface. b A TEM image showcases the microstructure of EVA latex, providing insight into the colloidal configuration. c Tensile curves for polyacrylic acid (PAA) and PAA/EVA films are presented, comparing the mechanical properties and flexibility of the films. The electrochemical performance of porous Si anodes using PAA/EVA and PAA as binders is examined through d the initial charge-discharge profiles of electrodes at a current density of 50 mA g−1, demonstrating the impact of binder selection on electrode capacity and efficiency. e Reversible capacity and Coulombic efficiency (CE) of electrodes at a current density of 50 mA g−1 for the first two cycles and at 500 mA g−1 for subsequent cycles, indicating the durability and performance enhancement provided by the PAA/EVA binder combination. Reproduced with the permission from Ref. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b174">174</xref>]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society

Table 6

Generalized carbon-Si composites for LIBs: evaluating scalability and commercial feasibility

Table 7

Generalized nanostructured silicon anode materials: scalability and commercial prospects

Table 8

Generalized SiO_x/C composites and non-carbonaceous integrations: pathways to scalable and commercially viable LIB anodes

Table 9

Generalized enhancements in Si-based anode materials: a focus on scalability and commercial application

1.	C. Zhang, F. Wang, J. Han, S. Bai, J. Tan et al., Challenges and recent progress on silicon-based anode materials for next-generation lithium-ion batteries. Small Struct. 2, 2170015 (2021).
2.	F. Dou, L. Shi, G. Chen, D. Zhang, Silicon/carbon composite anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2, 149-198 (2019).
3.	W. Tao, P. Wang, Y. You, K. Park, C.-Y. Wang et al., Strategies for improving the storage performance of silicon-based anodes in lithium-ion batteries. Nano Res. 12, 1739-1749 (2019).
4.	J. Wang, W. Huang, Y.S. Kim, Y.K. Jeong, S.C. Kim et al., Scalable synthesis of nanoporous silicon microparticles for highly cyclable lithium-ion batteries. Nano Res. 13, 1558-1563 (2020).
5.	Y.-X. Yao, C. Yan, Q. Zhang, Emerging interfacial chemistry of graphite anodes in lithium-ion batteries. Chem. Commun. 56, 14570-14584 (2020).
6.	L. Kraft, J.B. Habedank, A. Frank, A. Rheinfeld, A. Jossen, Modeling and simulation of pore morphology modifications using laser-structured graphite anodes in lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 167, 013506 (2019).
7.	X. Gao, W. Lu, J. Xu, Insights into the Li diffusion mechanism in Si/C composite anodes for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 21362-21370 (2021).
8.	K. Feng, M. Li, W. Liu, A.G. Kashkooli, X. Xiao et al., Silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion batteries: from fundamentals to practical applications. Small 14, 1702737 (2018).
9.	T.-F. Yi, Y.-R. Zhu, W. Tao, S. Luo, Y. Xie et al., Recent advances in the research of MLi₂Ti₆O₁₄ (M = 2Na, Sr, Ba, Pb) anode materials for Li-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 399, 26-41 (2018).
10.	Z. Chen, Y. Cao, J. Qian, X. Ai, H. Yang, Pb-sandwiched nanoparticles as anode material for lithium-ion batteries. J. Solid State Electrochem. 16, 291-295 (2012).
11.	Q. Li, C. Xu, L. Yang, K. Pei, Y. Zhao et al., Pb/C composite with spherical Pb nanoparticles encapsulated in carbon microspheres as a high-performance anode for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 3, 7416-7426 (2020).
12.	Y. Chen, J. Li, G. Yue, X. Luo, Novel Ag@Nitrogen-doped porous carbon composite with high electrochemical performance as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Nano-Micro Lett. 9, 32 (2017).
13.	X. Liu, X.-Y. Wu, B. Chang, K.-X. Wang, Recent progress on germanium-based anodes for lithium ion batteries: efficient lithiation strategies and mechanisms. Energy Storage Mater. 30, 146-169 (2020).
14.	A. Casimir, H. Zhang, O. Ogoke, J.C. Amine, J. Lu et al., Silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion batteries: effectiveness of materials synthesis and electrode preparation. Nano Energy 27, 359-376 (2016).
15.	H. Tian, X. Tan, F. Xin, C. Wang, W. Han, Micro-sized nano-porous Si/C anodes for lithium ion batteries. Nano Energy 11, 490-499 (2015).
16.	M. Salah, P. Murphy, C. Hall, C. Francis, R. Kerr et al., Pure silicon thin-film anodes for lithium-ion batteries: a review. J. Power. Sources 414, 48-67 (2019).
17.	C.K. Chan, H. Peng, G. Liu, K. McIlwrath, X.F. Zhang et al., High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires. Nat. Nanotechnol. 3, 31-35 (2008).
18.	J. Wang, L. Liao, Y. Li, J. Zhao, F. Shi et al., Shell-protective secondary silicon nanostructures as pressure-resistant high-volumetric-capacity anodes for lithium-ion batteries. Nano Lett. 18, 7060-7065 (2018).
19.	Y. Jin, B. Zhu, Z. Lu, N. Liu, J. Zhu, Challenges and recent progress in the development of Si anodes for lithium-ion battery. Adv. Energy Mater. 7, 1700715 (2017).
20.	P. Sehrawat, A. Shabir, C.M. Julien, S.S. Islam, Recent trends in silicon/graphene nanocomposite anodes for lithium-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 501, 229709 (2021).
21.	F. Zhang, G. Zhu, K. Wang, X. Qian, Y. Zhao et al., Boosting the initial coulombic efficiency in silicon anodes through interfacial incorporation of metal nanocrystals. J. Mater. Chem. A 7, 17426-17434 (2019).
22.	Z. Bitew, M. Tesemma, Y. Beyene, M. Amare, Nano-structured silicon and silicon based composites as anode materials for lithium ion batteries: recent progress and perspectives. Sustain. Energy Fuels 6, 1014-1050 (2022).
23.	M.A. Rahman, G. Song, A.I. Bhatt, Y.C. Wong, C. Wen, Nanostructured silicon anodes for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 26, 647-678 (2016).
24.	C. Zhu, K. Han, D. Geng, H. Ye, X. Meng, Achieving high-performance silicon anodes of lithium-ion batteries via atomic and molecular layer deposited surface coatings: an overview. Electrochim. Acta 251, 710-728 (2017).
25.	D. Uxa, B. Jerliu, E. Hüger, L. Dörrer, M. Horisberger et al., On the lithiation mechanism of amorphous silicon electrodes in Li-ion batteries. J. Phys. Chem. C 123, 22027-22039 (2019).
26.	S. Zhang, Chemomechanical modeling of lithiation-induced failure in high-volume-change electrode materials for lithium ion batteries. npj Comput. Mater. 3, 7 (2017).
27.	X. Chen, H. Li, Z. Yan, F. Cheng, J. Chen, Structure design and mechanism analysis of silicon anode for lithium-ion batteries. Sci. China Mater. 62, 1515-1536 (2019).
28.	S. Misra, N. Liu, J. Nelson, S.S. Hong, Y. Cui et al., In situ X-ray diffraction studies of (de)lithiation mechanism in silicon nanowire anodes. ACS Nano 6, 5465-5473 (2012).
29.	Z. Zhang, N. Liao, H. Zhou, W. Xue, Insight into silicon-carbon multilayer films as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries: a combined experimental and first principles study. Acta Mater. 178, 173-178 (2019).
30.	Y. Zhang, N. Du, D. Yang, Designing superior solid electrolyte interfaces on silicon anodes for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. Nanoscale 11, 19086-19104 (2019).
31.	R.E. Ruther, K.A. Hays, S.J. An, J. Li, D.L. Wood et al., Chemical evolution in silicon-graphite composite anodes investigated by vibrational spectroscopy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 18641-18649 (2018).
32.	F. Shi, Z. Song, P.N. Ross, G.A. Somorjai, R.O. Ritchie et al., Failure mechanisms of single-crystal silicon electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 7, 11886 (2016).
33.	F. Luo, B. Liu, J. Zheng, G. Chu, K. Zhong et al., Review—nano-silicon/carbon composite anode materials towards practical application for next generation Li-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162, A2509-A2528 (2015).
34.	Q. Shi, J. Zhou, S. Ullah, X. Yang, K. Tokarska et al., A review of recent developments in Si/C composite materials for Li-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 34, 735-754 (2021).
35.	S. You, H. Tan, L. Wei, W. Tan, C. Chao, Li Design strategies of Si/C composite anode for lithium-ion batteries. Chemistry 27, 12237-12256 (2021).
36.	C.-C. Hsieh, Y.-G. Lin, C.-L. Chiang, W.-R. Liu, Carbon-coated porous Si/C composite anode materials via two-step etching/coating processes for lithium-ion batteries. Ceram. Int. 46, 26598-26607 (2020).
37.	X. Gao, W. Lu, J. Xu, Unlocking multiphysics design guidelines on Si/C composite nanostructures for high-energy-density and robust lithium-ion battery anode. Nano Energy 81, 105591 (2021).
38.	Y. Yan, J. Miao, Z. Yang, F.-X. Xiao, H.B. Yang et al., Carbon nanotube catalysts: recent advances in synthesis, characterization and applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 44, 3295-3346 (2015).
39.	W. Wang, P.N. Kumta, Nanostructured hybrid silicon/carbon nanotube heterostructures: reversible high-capacity lithium-ion anodes. ACS Nano 4, 2233-2241 (2010).
40.	H. Zhang, X. Zhang, H. Jin, P. Zong, Y. Bai et al., A robust hierarchical 3D Si/CNTs composite with void and carbon shell as Li-ion battery anodes. Chem. Eng. J. 360, 974-981 (2019).
41.	J. Su, J. Zhao, L. Li, C. Zhang, C. Chen et al., Three-dimensional porous Si and SiO₂ with in situ decorated carbon nanotubes As anode materials for Li-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 17807-17813 (2017).
42.	Y.-J. Qiao, H. Zhang, Y.-X. Hu, W.-P. Li, W.-J. Liu et al., A chain-like compound of Si@CNT nanostructures and MOF-derived porous carbon as an anode for Li-ion batteries. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. 28, 1611-1620 (2021).
43.	S. Cui, S. Chen, L. Deng, Si nanoparticles encapsulated in CNTs arrays with tubular sandwich structure for high performance Li ion battery. Ceram. Int. 46, 3242-3249 (2020).
44.	H. Lu, W. Chen, Q. Liu, C. Pang, L. Xue et al., Si/Cu₃Si@C composite encapsulated in CNTs network as high performance anode for lithium ion batteries. J. Wuhan Univ. Technol. Mater. Sci. Ed. 34, 1055-1061 (2019).
45.	Y. Xu, Y. Zhu, F. Han, C. Luo, C. Wang, 3D Si/C fiber paper electrodes fabricated using a combined electrospray/electrospinning technique for Li-ion batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 5, 1400753 (2015).
46.	R. Cong, J.-Y. Choi, J.-B. Song, M. Jo, H. Lee et al., Characteristics and electrochemical performances of silicon/carbon nanofiber/graphene composite films as anode materials for binder-free lithium-ion batteries. Sci. Rep. 11, 1283 (2021).
47.	A.K. Geim, Graphene: status and prospects. Science 324, 1530-1534 (2009).
48.	A.K. Geim, K.S. Novoselov, The rise of graphene. Nat. Mater. 6, 183-191 (2007).
49.	R. Raccichini, A. Varzi, S. Passerini, B. Scrosati, The role of graphene for electrochemical energy storage. Nat. Mater. 14, 271-279 (2015).
50.	A. Jamaluddin, B. Umesh, F. Chen, J.-K. Chang, C.-Y. Su, Facile synthesis of core-shell structured Si@graphene balls as a high-performance anode for lithium-ion batteries. Nanoscale 12, 9616-9627 (2020).
51.	A. Jamaluddin, B. Umesh, K.-H. Tseng, C.-W. Huang, F. Chen et al., Control of graphene heteroatoms in a microball Si@Graphene composite anode for high-energy-density lithium-ion full cells. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 18936-18946 (2020).
52.	G. Lin, H. Wang, L. Zhang, Q. Cheng, Z. Gong et al., Graphene nanowalls conformally coated with amorphous/nanocrystalline Si as high-performance binder-free nanocomposite anode for lithium-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 437, 226909 (2019).
53.	P. Zhang, Q. Zhu, Z. Guan, Q. Zhao, N. Sun et al., A flexible Si@C electrode with excellent stability employing an MXene as a multifunctional binder for lithium-ion batteries. ChemSusChem 13, 1621-1628 (2020).
54.	C.-H. Wang, N. Kurra, M. Alhabeb, J.-K. Chang, H.N. Alshareef et al., Titanium carbide (MXene) as a current collector for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Omega 3, 12489-12494 (2018).
55.	X. Zhu, J. Shen, X. Chen, Y. Li, W. Peng et al., Enhanced cycling performance of Si-MXene nanohybrids as anode for high performance lithium ion batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 378, 122212 (2019).
56.	Y. Tian, Y. An, J. Feng, Flexible and freestanding silicon/MXene composite papers for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 10004-10011 (2019).
57.	Y. Zhang, Z. Mu, J. Lai, Y. Chao, Y. Yang et al., MXene/Si@SiO _x@C layer-by-layer superstructure with autoadjustable function for superior stable lithium storage. ACS Nano 13, 2167-2175 (2019).
58.	X.-R. Wu, C.-H. Yu, C.-C. Li, Carbon-encapsulated gigaporous microsphere as potential Si anode-active material for lithium-ion batteries. Carbon 160, 255-264 (2020).
59.	C. Xiao, P. He, J. Ren, M. Yue, Y. Huang et al., Walnut-structure Si-G/C materials with high coulombic efficiency for long-life lithium ion batteries. RSC Adv. 8, 27580-27586 (2018).
60.	X. Li, P. Yan, X. Xiao, J.H. Woo, C. Wang et al., Design of porous Si/C-graphite electrodes with long cycle stability and controlled swelling. Energy Environ. Sci. 10, 1427-1434 (2017).
61.	C. Xu, B. Wang, H. Luo, P. Jing, X. Zhang et al., Embedding silicon in pinecone-derived porous carbon as a high-performance anode for lithium-ion batteries. ChemElectroChem 7, 2889-2895 (2020).
62.	R. Zhou, H. Guo, Y. Yang, Z. Wang, X. Li et al., N-doped carbon layer derived from polydopamine to improve the electrochemical performance of spray-dried Si/graphite composite anode material for lithium ion batteries. J. Alloys Compd. 689, 130-137 (2016).
63.	D. Shao, D. Tang, Y. Mai, L. Zhang, Nanostructured silicon/porous carbon spherical composite as a high capacity anode for Li-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 1, 15068-15075 (2013).
64.	X.-Y. Zhou, J.-J. Tang, J. Yang, J. Xie, L.-L. Ma, Silicon@carbon hollow core-shell heterostructures novel anode materials for lithium ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 87, 663-668 (2013).
65.	J. Xie, L. Tong, L. Su, Y. Xu, L. Wang et al., Core-shell yolk-shell Si@C@Void@C nanohybrids as advanced lithium ion battery anodes with good electronic conductivity and corrosion resistance. J. Power. Sources 342, 529-536 (2017).
66.	M.-S. Wang, L.-Z. Fan, M. Huang, J. Li, X. Qu, Conversion of diatomite to porous Si/C composites as promising anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 219, 29-35 (2012).
67.	Z.-L. Xu, Y. Gang, M.A. Garakani, S. Abouali, J.-Q. Huang et al., Carbon-coated mesoporous silicon microsphere anodes with greatly reduced volume expansion. J. Mater. Chem. A 4, 6098-6106 (2016).
68.	Y. Chen, N. Du, H. Zhang, D. Yang, Porous Si@C coaxial nanotubes: layer-by-layer assembly on ZnO nanorod templates and application to lithium-ion batteries. CrystEngComm 19, 1220-1229 (2017).
69.	H. Wang, J. Xie, S. Zhang, G. Cao, X. Zhao, Scalable preparation of silicon@graphite/carbon microspheres as high-performance lithium-ion battery anode materials. RSC Adv. 6, 69882-69888 (2016).
70.	M. Zhang, X. Hou, J. Wang, M. Li, S. Hu et al., Interweaved Si@C/CNTs&CNFs composites as anode materials for Li-ion batteries. J. Alloys Compd. 588, 206-211 (2014).
71.	A. Gohier, B. Laïk, K.H. Kim, J.L. Maurice, J.P. Pereira-Ramos et al., High-rate capability silicon decorated vertically aligned carbon nanotubes for Li-ion batteries. Adv. Mater. 24, 2592-2597 (2012).
72.	Y. Chen, Y. Hu, Z. Shen, R. Chen, X. He et al., Hollow core-shell structured silicon@carbon nanoparticles embed in carbon nanofibers as binder-free anodes for lithium-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 342, 467-475 (2017).
73.	X. Liu, J. Zhang, W. Si, L. Xi, B. Eichler et al., Sandwich nanoarchitecture of Si/reduced graphene oxide bilayer nanomembranes for Li-ion batteries with long cycle life. ACS Nano 9, 1198-1205 (2015).
74.	J. Wu, X. Qin, H. Zhang, Y.-B. He, B. Li et al., Multilayered silicon embedded porous carbon/graphene hybrid film as a high performance anode. Carbon 84, 434-443 (2015).
75.	D.A. Agyeman, K. Song, G.-H. Lee, M. Park, Y.-M. Kang, Carbon-coated Si nanoparticles anchored between reduced graphene oxides as an extremely reversible anode material for high energy-density Li-ion battery. Adv. Energy Mater. 6, 1600904 (2016).
76.	H. Su, X. Li, C. Liu, Y. Shang, H. Liu, Scalable synthesis of micrometer-sized porous silicon/carbon composites for high-stability lithium-ion battery anodes. Chem. Eng. J. 451, 138394 (2023).
77.	M. Zhang, J. Li, C. Sun, Z. Wang, Y. Li et al., Durable flexible dual-layer and free-standing silicon/carbon composite anode for lithium-ion batteries. J. Alloys Compd. 932, 167687 (2023).
78.	P. Li, C. Miao, D. Yi, Y. Wei, T. Chen et al., Pomegranate like silicon-carbon composites prepared from lignin-derived phenolic resins as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. New J. Chem. 47, 16855-16863 (2023).
79.	L. Ma, X. Fu, F. Zhao, L. Yu, W. Su et al., Microsized silicon/carbon composite anodes through in situ polymerization of phenolic resin onto silicon microparticles for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 6, 4989-4999 (2023).
80.	Q. Zhang, Y. Yang, D. Wang, R. Zhang, H. Fan et al., A silicon/carbon/reduced-graphene composite of honeycomb structure for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. J. Alloys Compd. 944, 169185 (2023).
81.	Z.-W. Li, M.-S. Han, J. Yu, Sub-nanometer structured silicon-carbon composite nanolayers armoring on graphite for fast-charging and high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries. Rare Met. 42, 3692-3704 (2023).
82.	H. Shi, W. Zhang, D. Wang, J. Wang, C. Wang et al., Facile preparation of silicon/carbon composite with porous architecture for advanced lithium-ion battery anode. J. Electroanal. Chem. 937, 117427 (2023).
83.	W. Zhang, H. Shi, C. Wang, J. Wang, Z. Wang et al., Synthesizing copper-doped silicon/carbon composite anode as cost-effective active materials for Li-ion batteries. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 179, 111387 (2023).
84.	J. Li, J.-Y. Yang, J.-T. Wang, S.-G. Lu, A scalable synthesis of silicon nanoparticles as high-performance anode material for lithium-ion batteries. Rare Met. 38, 199-205 (2019).
85.	S. Jiang, B. Hu, R. Sahore, L. Zhang, H. Liu et al., Surface-functionalized silicon nanoparticles as anode material for lithium-ion battery. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 44924-44931 (2018).
86.	T.H. Hwang, Y.M. Lee, B.S. Kong, J.S. Seo, J.W. Choi, Electrospun core-shell fibers for robust silicon nanoparticle-based lithium ion battery anodes. Nano Lett. 12, 802-807 (2012).
87.	M. Ge, J. Rong, X. Fang, A. Zhang, Y. Lu et al., Scalable preparation of porous silicon nanoparticles and their application for lithium-ion battery anodes. Nano Res. 6, 174-181 (2013).
88.	Y. Xu, Y. Zhu, C. Wang, Mesoporous carbon/silicon composite anodes with enhanced performance for lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 9751-9757 (2014).
89.	R. Epur, M. Ramanathan, M.K. Datta, D.H. Hong, P.H. Jampani et al., Scribable multi-walled carbon nanotube-silicon nanocomposites: a viable lithium-ion battery system. Nanoscale 7, 3504-3510 (2015).
90.	H. Liu, Y. Chen, Y. Zhao, K. Liu, X. Guo et al., Two-dimensional Cu₂MoS₄-loaded silicon nanospheres as an anode for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 4, 13061-13069 (2021).
91.	H.-J. Shin, J.-Y. Hwang, H.J. Kwon, W.-J. Kwak, S.-O. Kim et al., Sustainable encapsulation strategy of silicon nanoparticles in microcarbon sphere for high-performance lithium-ion battery anode. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8, 14150-14158 (2020).
92.	X. Zhou, Y.-X. Yin, L.-J. Wan, Y.-G. Guo, Self-assembled nanocomposite of silicon nanoparticles encapsulated in graphene through electrostatic attraction for lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2, 1086-1090 (2012).
93.	S. Chen, P. Bao, X. Huang, B. Sun, G. Wang, Hierarchical 3D mesoporous silicon@graphene nanoarchitectures for lithium ion batteries with superior performance. Nano Res. 7, 85-94 (2014).
94.	K. Zhao, M. Pharr, J.J. Vlassak, Z. Suo, Fracture of electrodes in lithium-ion batteries caused by fast charging. J. Appl. Phys. 108, 073517 (2010).
95.	S. Fang, L. Shen, G. Xu, P. Nie, J. Wang et al., Rational design of void-involved Si@TiO₂ nanospheres as high-performance anode material for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 6, 6497-6503 (2014).
96.	A.R. Park, D.Y. Son, J.S. Kim, J.Y. Lee, N.G. Park et al., Si/Ti₂O₃/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite anodes for lithium-ion batteries with highly enhanced cyclic stability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 18483-18490 (2015).
97.	J. Zhao, W. Wei, N. Xu, X. Wang, L. Chang et al., Dealloying synthesis of silicon nanotubes for high-performance lithium ion batteries. ChemPhysChem 23, e202100832 (2022).
98.	X. Wang, G. Li, M.H. Seo, G. Lui, F.M. Hassan et al., Carbon-coated silicon nanowires on carbon fabric as self-supported electrodes for flexible lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 9551-9558 (2017).
99.	T. Song, J. Xia, J.H. Lee, D.H. Lee, M.S. Kwon et al., Arrays of sealed silicon nanotubes as anodes for lithium ion batteries. Nano Lett. 10, 1710-1716 (2010).
100.	H. Wu, G. Chan, J.W. Choi, I. Ryu, Y. Yao et al., Stable cycling of double-walled silicon nanotube battery anodes through solid-electrolyte interphase control. Nat. Nanotechnol. 7, 310-315 (2012).
101.	J. Graetz, C.C. Ahn, R. Yazami, B. Fultz, Highly reversible lithium storage in nanostructured silicon. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 6, A194 (2003).
102.	L.B. Chen, J.Y. Xie, H.C. Yu, T.H. Wang, An amorphous Si thin film anode with high capacity and long cycling life for lithium ion batteries. J. Appl. Electrochem. 39, 1157-1162 (2009).
103.	G. Schmuelling, M. Winter, T. Placke, Investigating the Mg-Si binary system via combinatorial sputter deposition As high energy density anodes for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7, 20124-20133 (2015).
104.	G. Zhao, Y. Meng, N. Zhang, K. Sun, Electrodeposited Si film with excellent stability and high rate performance for lithium-ion battery anodes. Mater. Lett. 76, 55-58 (2012).
105.	B.M. Bang, J.-I. Lee, H. Kim, J. Cho, S. Park, High-performance macroporous bulk silicon anodes synthesized by template-free chemical etching. Adv. Energy Mater. 2, 878-883 (2012).
106.	H. Wu, N. Du, X. Shi, D. Yang, Rational design of three-dimensional macroporous silicon as high performance Li-ion battery anodes with long cycle life. J. Power. Sources 331, 76-81 (2016).
107.	J. Liu, P. Kopold, P.A. van Aken, J. Maier, Y. Yu, Energy storage materials from nature through nanotechnology: a sustainable route from reed plants to a silicon anode for lithium-ion batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 9632-9636 (2015).
108.	Y. Yao, M.T. McDowell, I. Ryu, H. Wu, N. Liu et al., Interconnected silicon hollow nanospheres for lithium-ion battery anodes with long cycle life. Nano Lett. 11, 2949-2954 (2011).
109.	Y. Yu, L. Gu, C. Zhu, S. Tsukimoto, P.A. van Aken et al., Reversible storage of lithium in silver-coated three-dimensional macroporous silicon. Adv. Mater. 22, 2247-2250 (2010).
110.	X. Zhang, D. Wang, X. Qiu, Y. Ma, D. Kong et al., Stable high-capacity and high-rate silicon-based lithium battery anodes upon two-dimensional covalent encapsulation. Nat. Commun. 11, 3826 (2020).
111.	B. Liang, Y. Liu, Y. Xu, Silicon-based materials as high capacity anodes for next generation lithium ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 267, 469-490 (2014).
112.	L. Yue, W. Zhang, J. Yang, L. Zhang, Designing Si/porous-C composite with buffering voids as high capacity anode for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 125, 206-217 (2014).
113.	A. Magasinski, P. Dixon, B. Hertzberg, A. Kvit, J. Ayala et al., High-performance lithium-ion anodes using a hierarchical bottom-up approach. Nat. Mater. 9, 353-358 (2010).
114.	Y. Chen, N. Du, H. Zhang, D. Yang, Facile synthesis of uniform MWCNT@Si nanocomposites as high-performance anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. J. Alloys Compd. 622, 966-972 (2015).
115.	L. Zhong, J. Guo, L. Mangolini, A stable silicon anode based on the uniform dispersion of quantum dots in a polymer matrix. J. Power. Sources 273, 638-644 (2015).
116.	J. Ji, H. Ji, L.L. Zhang, X. Zhao, X. Bai et al., Graphene-encapsulated Si on ultrathin-graphite foam as anode for high capacity lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Mater. 25, 4673-4677 (2013).
117.	M. Zhou, T. Cai, F. Pu, H. Chen, Z. Wang et al., Graphene/carbon-coated Si nanoparticle hybrids as high-performance anode materials for Li-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 5, 3449-3455 (2013).
118.	T.D. Bogart, D. Oka, X. Lu, M. Gu, C. Wang et al., Lithium ion battery peformance of silicon nanowires with carbon skin. ACS Nano 8, 915-922 (2014).
119.	J.K. Yoo, J. Kim, Y.S. Jung, K. Kang, Scalable fabrication of silicon nanotubes and their application to energy storage. Adv. Mater. 24, 5452-5456 (2012).
120.	Z. Lu, T. Wong, T.-W. Ng, C. Wang, Facile synthesis of carbon decorated silicon nanotube arrays as anode material for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 4, 2440-2446 (2014).
121.	B. Hertzberg, A. Alexeev, G. Yushin, Deformations in Si-Li anodes upon electrochemical alloying in nano-confined space. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132, 8548-8549 (2010).
122.	J. Liu, N. Li, M.D. Goodman, H.G. Zhang, E.S. Epstein et al., Mechanically and chemically robust sandwich-structured C@Si@C nanotube array Li-ion battery anodes. ACS Nano 9, 1985-1994 (2015).
123.	M. Ge, Y. Lu, P. Ercius, J. Rong, X. Fang et al., Large-scale fabrication, 3D tomography, and lithium-ion battery application of porous silicon. Nano Lett. 14, 261-268 (2014).
124.	J. Feng, Z. Zhang, L. Ci, W. Zhai, Q. Ai et al., Chemical dealloying synthesis of porous silicon anchored by in situ generated graphene sheets as anode material for lithium-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 287, 177-183 (2015).
125.	X. Han, H. Chen, J. Liu, H. Liu, P. Wang et al., A peanut shell inspired scalable synthesis of three-dimensional carbon coated porous silicon particles as an anode for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 156, 11-19 (2015).
126.	Z. Wang, L. Jing, X. Zheng, Z. Xu, Y. Yuan et al., Microspheres of Si@Carbon-CNTs composites with a stable 3D interpenetrating structure applied in high-performance lithium-ion battery. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 629, 511-521 (2023).
127.	J. Ryu, T. Chen, T. Bok, G. Song, J. Ma et al., Mechanical mismatch-driven rippling in carbon-coated silicon sheets for stress-resilient battery anodes. Nat. Commun. 9, 2924 (2018).
128.	J. Liang, F. Huo, Z. Zhang, W. Yang, M. Javid et al., Controlling the phenolic resin-based amorphous carbon content for enhancing cycling stability of Si nanosheets@C anodes for lithium-ion batteries. Appl. Surf. Sci. 476, 1000-1007 (2019).
129.	S. Chen, Z. Chen, X. Xu, C. Cao, M. Xia et al., Scalable 2D mesoporous silicon nanosheets for high-performance lithium-ion battery anode. Small 14, e1703361 (2018).
130.	J. Lee, J. Moon, S.A. Han, J. Kim, V. Malgras et al., Everlasting living and breathing gyroid 3D network in Si@SiOx/C nanoarchitecture for lithium ion battery. ACS Nano 13, 9607-9619 (2019).
131.	Q. Xu, J.-K. Sun, Y.-X. Yin, Y.-G. Guo, Facile synthesis of blocky SiO_x/C with graphite-like structure for high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes. Adv. Funct. Mater. 28, 1705235 (2018).
132.	J. Cui, Y. Cui, S. Li, H. Sun, Z. Wen et al., Microsized porous SiO_x@C composites synthesized through aluminothermic reduction from rice husks and used as anode for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 30239-30247 (2016).
133.	Y. Ju, J.A. Tang, K. Zhu, Y. Meng, C. Wang et al., SiO_x/C composite from rice husks as an anode material for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 191, 411-416 (2016).
134.	B. Jiang, S. Zeng, H. Wang, D. Liu, J. Qian et al., Dual core-shell structured Si@SiO_x@C nanocomposite synthesized via a one-step pyrolysis method as a highly stable anode material for lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 31611-31616 (2016).
135.	S.J. Lee, H.J. Kim, T.H. Hwang, S. Choi, S.H. Park et al., Delicate structural control of Si-SiO_x-C composite via high-speed spray pyrolysis for Li-ion battery anodes. Nano Lett. 17, 1870-1876 (2017).
136.	P. Lv, H. Zhao, C. Gao, T. Zhang, X. Liu, Highly efficient and scalable synthesis of SiO_x/C composite with core-shell nanostructure as high-performance anode material for lithium ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 152, 345-351 (2015).
137.	M.K. Majeed, G. Ma, Y. Cao, H. Mao, X. Ma et al., Metal-organic frameworks-derived mesoporous Si/SiO_x @NC nanospheres as a long-lifespan anode material for lithium-ion batteries. Chemistry 25, 11991-11997 (2019).
138.	Y. Bai, D. Yan, C. Yu, L. Cao, C. Wang et al., Core-shell Si@TiO₂ nanosphere anode by atomic layer deposition for Li-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 308, 75-82 (2016).
139.	Z.-W. Zhou, Y.-T. Liu, X.-M. Xie, X.-Y. Ye, Constructing novel Si@SnO₂ core-shell heterostructures by facile self-assembly of SnO₂ nanowires on silicon hollow nanospheres for large, reversible lithium storage. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8, 7092-7100 (2016).
140.	J. Yang, Y. Wang, W. Li, L. Wang, Y. Fan et al., Amorphous TiO₂ shells: a vital elastic buffering layer on silicon nanoparticles for high-performance and safe lithium storage. Adv. Mater. 29, 1700523 (2017).
141.	T. Ma, X. Yu, H. Li, W. Zhang, X. Cheng et al., High volumetric capacity of hollow structured SnO₂@Si nanospheres for lithium-ion batteries. Nano Lett. 17, 3959-3964 (2017).
142.	G. Wang, Z. Wen, L. Du, S. Li, S. Ji et al., A core-shell Si@Nb₂O₅ composite as an anode material for lithium-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 6, 39728-39733 (2016).
143.	V.A. Sethuraman, K. Kowolik, V. Srinivasan, Increased cycling efficiency and rate capability of copper-coated silicon anodes in lithium-ion batteries. J. Power. Sources 196, 393-398 (2011).
144.	D. Kim, M. Park, S.M. Kim, H.C. Shim, S. Hyun et al., Conversion reaction of nanoporous ZnO for stable electrochemical cycling of binderless Si microparticle composite anode. ACS Nano 12, 10903-10913 (2018).
145.	G. Carbonari, F. Maroni, A. Birrozzi, R. Tossici, F. Croce et al., Synthesis and characterization of Si nanoparticles wrapped by V₂O₅ nanosheets as a composite anode material for lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 281, 676-683 (2018).
146.	J. Li, N.J. Dudney, J. Nanda, C. Liang, Artificial solid electrolyte interphase to address the electrochemical degradation of silicon electrodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 6, 10083-10088 (2014).
147.	X. Xu, Q. Ai, L. Pan, X. Ma, W. Zhai et al., Li₇P₃S₁₁ solid electrolyte coating silicon for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 276, 325-332 (2018).
148.	Q. Ai, P. Zhou, W. Zhai, X. Ma, G. Hou et al., Synergistic double-shell coating of graphene and Li₄SiO₄ on silicon for high performance lithium-ion battery application. Diam. Relat. Mater. 88, 60-66 (2018).
149.	Q. Li, M. Yu, Y. Huang, Z. Cai, S. Wang et al., Phosphorus-doped silicon copper alloy composites as high-performance anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. J. Electroanal. Chem. 944, 117684 (2023).
150.	Z. Sun, M. Li, Z. Zheng, Z. Chen, H. Zhang et al., Cycle-stable Si-based composite anode for lithium-ion batteries enabled by the synergetic combination of mixed lithium phosphates and void-preserving F-doped carbon. Mater. Today Nano 22, 100322 (2023).
151.	R.F.H. Hernandha, B. Umesh, P.C. Rath, L.T.T. Trang, J.-C. Wei et al., N-containing carbon-coated β-Si₃N₄ enhances Si anodes for high-performance Li-ion batteries. Adv. Sci. 10, 2301218 (2023).
152.	M. Ge, C. Cao, G.M. Biesold, C.D. Sewell, S.-M. Hao et al., Recent advances in silicon-based electrodes: from fundamental research toward practical applications. Adv. Mater. 33, e2004577 (2021).
153.	C. Yan, X.-B. Cheng, Y.-X. Yao, X. Shen, B.-Q. Li et al., An armored mixed conductor interphase on a dendrite-free lithium-metal anode. Adv. Mater. 30, e1804461 (2018).
154.	H. Wang, Y. Tang, Artificial solid electrolyte interphase acting as “armor” to protect the anode materials for high-performance lithium-ion battery. Chem. Res. Chin. Univ. 36, 402-409 (2020).
155.	Y.-F. Tian, S.-J. Tan, C. Yang, Y.-M. Zhao, D.-X. Xu et al., Tailoring chemical composition of solid electrolyte interphase by selective dissolution for long-life micron-sized silicon anode. Nat. Commun. 14, 7247 (2023).
156.	N. Harpak, G. Davidi, F. Patolsky, Breathing parylene-based nanothin artificial SEI for highly-stable long life three-dimensional silicon lithium-ion batteries. Chem. Eng. J. 429, 132077 (2022).
157.	H. Wang, M. Miao, H. Li, Y. Cao, H. Yang et al., In Situ-formed artificial solid electrolyte interphase for boosting the cycle stability of Si-based anodes for Li-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13, 22505-22513 (2021).
158.	C. Yao, X. Li, Y. Deng, Y. Li, P. Yang et al., An efficient prelithiation of graphene oxide nanoribbons wrapping silicon nanoparticles for stable Li⁺ storage. Carbon 168, 392-403 (2020).
159.	K.H. Kim, J. Shon, H. Jeong, H. Park, S.-J. Lim et al., Improving the cyclability of silicon anodes for lithium-ion batteries using a simple pre-lithiation method. J. Power. Sources 459, 228066 (2020).
160.	K. Yao, J.P. Zheng, Z. Liang, Binder-free freestanding flexible Si nanoparticle-multi-walled carbon nanotube composite paper anodes for high energy Li-ion batteries. J. Mater. Res. 33, 482-494 (2018).
161.	Q. Pan, P. Zuo, T. Mu, C. Du, X. Cheng et al., Improved electrochemical performance of micro-sized SiO-based composite anode by prelithiation of stabilized lithium metal powder. J. Power. Sources 347, 170-177 (2017).
162.	Y. Zhu, W. Hu, J. Zhou, W. Cai, Y. Lu et al., Prelithiated surface oxide layer enabled high-performance Si anode for lithium storage. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 18305-18312 (2019).
163.	J. Zhao, Z. Lu, N. Liu, H.-W. Lee, M.T. McDowell et al., Dry-air-stable lithium silicide-lithium oxide core-shell nanoparticles as high-capacity prelithiation reagents. Nat. Commun. 5, 5088 (2014).
164.	Y. Zhang, B. Wu, G. Mu, C. Ma, D. Mu et al., Recent progress and perspectives on silicon anode: synthesis and prelithiation for LIBs energy storage. J. Energy Chem. 64, 615-650 (2022).
165.	Y. Wang, H. Xu, X. Chen, H. Jin, J. Wang, Novel constructive self-healing binder for silicon anodes with high mass loading in lithium-ion batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 38, 121-129 (2021).
166.	M. Gu, X.-C. Xiao, G. Liu, S. Thevuthasan, D.R. Baer et al., Mesoscale origin of the enhanced cycling-stability of the Si-conductive polymer anode for Li-ion batteries. Sci. Rep. 4, 3684 (2014).
167.	L. Zhang, L. Zhang, L. Chai, P. Xue, W. Hao et al., A coordinatively cross-linked polymeric network as a functional binder for high-performance silicon submicro-particle anodes in lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 19036-19045 (2014).
168.	J. Yoon, D.X. Oh, C. Jo, J. Lee, D.S. Hwang, Improvement of desolvation and resilience of alginate binders for Si-based anodes in a lithium ion battery by calcium-mediated cross-linking. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 16, 25628-25635 (2014).
169.	D. Shao, H. Zhong, L. Zhang, Water-soluble conductive composite binder containing PEDOT: PSS as conduction promoting agent for Si anode of lithium-ion batteries. ChemElectroChem 1, 1679-1687 (2014).
170.	A. Magasinski, B. Zdyrko, I. Kovalenko, B. Hertzberg, R. Burtovyy et al., Toward efficient binders for Li-ion battery Si-based anodes: polyacrylic acid. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2, 3004-3010 (2010).
171.	I. Kovalenko, B. Zdyrko, A. Magasinski, B. Hertzberg, Z. Milicev et al., A major constituent of brown algae for use in high-capacity Li-ion batteries. Science 334, 75-79 (2011).
172.	Z.-Y. Wu, L. Deng, J.-T. Li, Q.-S. Huang, Y.-Q. Lu et al., Multiple hydrogel alginate binders for Si anodes of lithium-ion battery. Electrochim. Acta 245, 371-378 (2017).
173.	C. Wang, H. Wu, Z. Chen, M.T. McDowell, Y. Cui et al., Self-healing chemistry enables the stable operation of silicon microparticle anodes for high-energy lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Chem. 5, 1042-1048 (2013).
174.	R. Guo, S. Zhang, H. Ying, W. Yang, J. Wang et al., New, effective, and low-cost dual-functional binder for porous silicon anodes in lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 14051-14058 (2019).

Links