Highlights
1 Introduction
Fig. 1 Promising optical fiber sensors in battery applications |
2 Promising Optical Fiber Sensors in Future SLIBs
2.1 FBG Sensor: Battery Routine Mechanical-Thermal Monitoring
Fig. 2 Application of FBG sensors to measure the cell strain-temperature at the laboratory level and before industrialization. a FBG sensor structure and action mechanism. When the battery is loaded with temperature or strain, the FBG grid spacing changes, and the central wavelength of reflected light shifts. The central wavelength shift is linearly related to the temperature and strain. b The evolution of FBG in battery applications. From single point to multipoint, from external to internal, and from single battery to module even system. c Bidirectional strain measurement of an FBG sensor in a single cell. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56]. Copyright 2018 MDPI. d Embedded FBG sensor core temperature measurement. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [35]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier. e Embedding of an FBG in a large pouch battery. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier. f Traction battery pack with an FBG embedded in the core. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [35]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier. g The process of embedding optical fibers in batteries involves the steps of implantation position determination, stacking fixation, encapsulation sealing, and testing in sequence. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [35]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier |
2.2 TFBG Sensors: Electrolyte Internal Environmental Monitoring
Fig. 3 TFBG monitoring of the electrolyte environment. a Working mechanism and application scenario of the TFBG in batteries. When the incident light enters the fiber and reaches the grating, the light meeting the Bragg condition will undergo Bragg reflection, while the light meeting the conditions of a certain order cladding radiation mode will be coupled into the cladding and exchange energy with the external environment, realizing monitoring of the surrounding electrolyte environment. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49]. Copyright 2021 Royal Society of Chemistry. b The evolution of electrolyte refractive index with battery health state in TFBG Wavelength. The suspended dead lithium, gas production, and degradation of the electrolyte’s performance caused by battery aging can all lead to significant changes in the comprehensive refractive index of the electrolyte detected by TFBG, which is reflected in the mode conversion of various modes in TFBG, including the center position of the mode peak and the power of the peak. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49]. Copyright 2021 Royal Society of Chemistry |
2.3 FOEW & TFBG-SPR Sensors: Electrode Interface Monitoring
Fig. 4 FOEW sensor and SPR sensor for battery surface monitoring. a FOEW sensor: The evanescent wave effect occurs when a light wave is incident from a dense medium to a light sparse medium, and total reflection occurs. The evanescent wave is a surface wave. Its amplitude exponentially decreases with increasing depth perpendicular to the interface, and the phase changes with the tangential direction. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [70]. Copyright 2017 ACS Publications. Ref. [71]. Copyright 2022 ACS Publications. b The loss of reversible lithium leads to changes in the detectable optical properties of FOEW. The optical transmissivity of the evanescent wave is related to the lithium-ion concentration on the surface of the graphite particles, when the capacity of the lithium-ion battery declines after long cycling due to the reduction of recyclable graphite lithium content, the FOEW transmission amplitude decreases. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [42]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier. c SPR sensor: Total internal reflection of incident light occurs at the interface between an optical fiber and a metal film, and the evanescent wave causes regular oscillation of metal surface electrons at the interface between the metal film and medium, which excites a surface plasmon wave. When the incidence angle or wavelength is a certain value, the wave vectors of the surface plasmon wave and evanescent wave are equal along the interface between the metal film and medium such that the wave vectors match, and the two resonate. The incident light is coupled with the surface plasmon wave through the evanescent wave, and the energy is strongly absorbed by the metal surface electrons, which makes the reflected light energy sharply drop and generates the surface plasmon resonance phenomenon. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright 2022 MDPI. d The changes in ion concentration and state on the electrode surface affect the SPR waveform. The SPR mode is closely related to the electrode surface polarity, and as the potential gradually becomes positive, the SPR wave becomes deeper. At the same time, the core mode is not related to the polarity, and research shows that it is only related to temperature and only changes with temperature. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [45]. Copyright 2018 Springer Nature |
2.4 Rayleigh Scattering Optical Fiber Sensors: Global Thermal-Mechanical Monitoring
Fig. 5 Distributed optical fiber sensing system based on the Rayleigh scattering principle. a Measurement mechanisms for different distributed optical fibers. When the particle size is much smaller than the wavelength of the incident light (less than one tenth of the wavelength), the scattered light intensities in each direction are different, and the intensity is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of the incident light. This phenomenon is called Rayleigh scattering. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2021 IOP Publishing. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [51]. Copyright 2019 AIP Publishing. b Comparison between distributed temperature measurement based on Rayleigh scattering effect and FBG quasi-distributed temperature measurement. The spectrum of temperature measurement based on Rayleigh scattering effect in time and space is more intuitive than that of FBG measurement, and the identification of temperature hot spots is more accurate. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2021 IOP Publishing |
Table 1 Characteristics and application scenarios of different types of sensors |
Working mechanism | Sensor | Characteristic | Application scenario | Note | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Optical structural component | FBG | Simple structure Good economy Easy identification of measurement parameters High linearity | Macro-temperature and strain measurement | Installed inside or outside the battery | [36, 62] |
TFBG | No cross-sensitivity of temperature to refractive index measurement | Measurement of composite refractive index of electrolyte | Embedded installation inside the battery | [49] | |
Optical functional Component | FOEW | The change of electrolyte salt concentration is not related to the observation of transmissivity index | Transmission measurement of electrode-optical fiber interface | Close to the electrode surface | [71] |
TFBG-SPR | Integrated with TFBG can realize multifunctional applications | Measurement of charge density and ion distribution concentration on electrode surface | Close to the electrode surface | [73] | |
Rayleigh Scattering sensor | Distributed measurement | Distributed observation of cell temperature and strain on optical fiber path | Installed inside or outside the battery | [83, 85] |
3 Embedded Optical Fiber Sensors Help Strengthen Battery Safety
3.1 Early Warning of Battery Health State Enabled by Mechanical-Thermal Signals of Optical Fiber Sensors
Fig. 6 Observation of the “breathing” effect of the battery by an advanced optical fiber sensor. The fiber has different wavelength response behaviors at different interface positions, and the bidirectional stress inside the electrode causes splitting of the fiber wave peak, indicating anisotropy of the electrode active material. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2022 Springer Nature |
3.2 Electrochemical Reaction State Reflected by Spectral Signals of Optical Fiber Sensors
Fig. 7 New understanding of the electrochemical reaction through advanced optical fiber sensors. a An improved microstructure optical fiber was used to understand the electrochemical reaction state of the battery by observing and calculating the heat release, chemical reaction at the electrode-electrolyte interface and reactivity of electrolyte additives. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2020 Spring Nature. b Understanding the relationship between the redox of Fe in an LFP-based battery and the strength of the optical fiber output, and understanding the material reaction process. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [41]. Copyright 2021American Chemical Society |
Fig. 8 An advanced optical fiber sensor provides insight into the internal environment of an electrolyte. a Factors that cause deterioration of the internal environment of the battery electrolyte during the entire life. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [52]. Copyright 2022 Springer Nature. b Effect of different electrolyte concentrations on the light intensity in the SPR mode and core mode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [45]. Copyright 2018 Springer Nature. c Overall effect of the salt concentration on the light intensity. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49]. Copyright 2021 Royal Society of Chemistry |
3.3 Large Margin Early Warning of Battery Thermal Runaway Through Optical Fiber Sensors Signals
Fig. 9 An advanced optical fiber sensor exhibits a timely response to dangerous battery thermal runaway. a Reaction sequence of components and materials in battery thermal runaway. b New multifunctional optical fiber sensor for monitoring the thermal runaway of commercial lithium-ion batteries. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [62]. Copyright 2022 Spring Nature. c SLIB equipped with an FBG sensor gives an early warning of extreme abuse conditions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright 2022 Elsevier |
Table 2 Summary of the usage effects that different fiber optic sensors can achieve |
Domain feature | Sensor | Monitoring Process | Principle | Function | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Element | FOEW | Observing the oxidation-reduction of elements | Change in light signal intensity | Understanding the redox process of elements and its accompanying processes | [41] |
Interface | SPR | Observing the particle concentration at the interface | Changes in light intensity of SPR mode | Understanding interface electrical properties | [45] |
Domain | TFBG | Observing the turbidity level of electrolyte | Changes in light intensity of guided cladding mode | Understanding the evolution of electrolyte domain performance | [49] |
Macro: Point to Line (Adding a time dimension can transform single measurement point information into line information) | FBG | Observing the transverse and longitudinal bidirectional stress inside the battery; Observing oxidation-reduction temperature rise | FBG reflection peak splitting and displacement | Understanding the characteristics of charge and matter transport | [99] |
Macro: Line to Surface (Adding a time dimension can transform the information along the optical fiber into surface information) | Rayleigh Scattering sensor | Observing global force and heat | Rayleigh scattering spectral shift | Understanding global force and thermal evolution | [85] |
4 Optical Fiber Sensors Drive Future Energy Storage Technology Progress
4.1 Application of Advanced Optical Fiber Sensors in Various Energy Storage Systems
Fig. 10 Advanced optical fiber sensors have great application prospects in various types of batteries. a In the Li-S battery, the optical fiber sensor identifies the key phase change process of the electrode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [38]. Copyright 2022 Royal Society of Chemistry. b The optical fiber sensor monitors the entire process of the Si-based electrode from complete structure to particle damage. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2022 Springer Nature. c The oxygen partial pressure in the Li-air battery affects the light intensity, which can be used to monitor the oxygen concentration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [138]. Copyright 2019 The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers. d The application of advanced optical fiber sensor in Na-ion battery. When the electric signal is applied, the optical signal drops rapidly, indicating the occurrence of sodium precipitation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [71]. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. e FBG sensors at different locations found “breathing” and spectral peak splitting effects caused by solid-state batteries under pressure. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2022 Springer Nature |
Table 3 Application value of fiber optic sensors in different battery research |
Battery type | Embedding position | Function | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Coin battery | Symmetrically embedded in the middle of the cell | Traverse the battery, can be installed at any position; especially suitable for embedding at the most active electrochemical location | [99, 139] |
Swagelok battery | Symmetrically embedded in the middle of the electrode | Achieves higher detection accuracy than pouch batteries after embedding | [68, 70, 99] |
Three-electrode battery | Between electrode sheets, near the reference electrode | Cross-confirmation of optical and electrical signals; excellent binding performance | [71] |
Pouch battery | Between electrode sheets | Can be embedded at any position, enabling measurement of battery non-uniformity; features a one-to-many characteristic with strong scalability | [35, 41] |
Cylindrical battery | In the mandrel | Directly embedded in the battery core, avoids delayed judgment of internal temperature due to low radial thermal conductivity | [36, 39, 49] |
Hard shell battery | Between electrode sheets | [140] | |
Solid state battery | Inside the active material | Able to detect the expansion issues of solid-state electrodes that conventional external sensors cannot detect | [99] |
Wearable batter | Can be used as a battery matrix; can also be wound around the battery | Flexible mechanical properties and minimal radial size, can flex freely within flexible batteries, can be used as the base for supporting batteries | - |
4.2 Prospects of New Type Optical Fiber Sensors in Energy Storage Systems
Fig. 11 Future application prospects of advanced PCF optical fiber sensors. a PCF structure, left: solid core, right: hollow core. b The future application of different types of PCF in energy storage devices such as batteries will achieve comprehensive monitoring of the mechanical, electrical, thermal, and pressure of energy devices. Upper left: The combination of the PCF structure and the SPR principle, a temperature sensor is constructed using surface plasmon resonance liquid crystal to measure the core temperature of the device; Lower left: The combination of PCF and FBG, a high birefringence microstructure is fabricated using FBG to form a pressure sensor, enabling the measurement of the device internal core pressure; Upper right: The PCF hollow is filled with magnetic fluid to form a magnetic field-temperature composite sensor. By utilizing the sensitivity of magnetic fluid to magnetic field and temperature, the magnetic field and temperature are decoupled through structural design to achieve monitoring of the internal magnetic field and temperature of the energy device; Lower right: The combination of PCF and the measured liquid forms a refractive index sensor. The measured liquid is filled in the PCF hollow through capillary effect, and sensitive spectral changes are utilized to monitor the refractive index of the measured object |
Table 4 Summary of multipurpose sensing for PCF and advanced optical fiber sensor |
Structure | Parameter | Sensitivity | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
PCF + SMF Tip interferometer by PCF spliced with SMF | Temperature | 10 pm/°C | [148] |
PCF + FP + SMF PCF-based Fabry-Perot interferometer, which includes an inline micro-cavity and is spliced with SMF | Temperature | 12 pm/°C | [149] |
PCF + SPR Plasma resonance-based gold nanowire liquid crystal PCF | Temperature | 10 nm/°C | [150] |
PCF + Isopropanol Isopropanol filled PCF long period grating | Temperature | 1.356 nm/°C | [151] |
PCF + long period gratings The combination of periodically tapered long period grating and PCF | Pressure/Strain | 11.2 pm/bar/ -7.6 pm/με | [152, 153] |
PCF + FBG High birefringence microstructure fiber based on Bragg grating | Pressure | 33 pm/Mpa | [154] |
PCF + Fe3O4 Fe3O4 nanofluid filling | Electromagnetic field | 242 pm/mT | [147] |
PCF + FP + CdFe2O4 CdFe2O4 as a magnetic fluid | Electromagnetic field | 33 pm/Oe | [155] |
PCF + SMF + Water-based ferromagnetic fluid Water-based ferromagnetic fluid EMG507 | Electromagnetic field | 16.04 pm/G | [156] |
PCF + SPR Gold layer filled SPR | Electromagnetic field | − | [157] |
Multi core flat optical fiber based on SPR | Refractive index | 23,000 nm/RIU | [158] |
PCF + Long Period Grating Surface long-period gratings incorporated D-shaped PCF | Refractive index | 585.3 nm/RIU | [159] |
PCF + filled analyte under test | Refractive index | 2 × 10−6 RIU | [160] |
4.3 Optimization and Enhancement of Advanced Embedded Optical Fiber Sensors
Fig. 12 An electrode was damaged due to improper mechanical behavior of the optical fiber inside the battery. a The electrode surface is scratched due to mechanical vibration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [139]. Copyright 2017 MDPI. b Material damage is caused by mechanical displacement. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[139]. Copyright 2017 MDPI. c The change in the electrode structure due to the optical fiber sensor leads to obstruction of material diffusion and material deposition. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright 2022 MDPI |
4.4 Advanced Optical Fiber Sensors Drive the Development of Future Smart Batteries
Fig. 13 Advanced optical fiber sensors and microcontrollers in the future will help batteries be more powerful, safe, and intelligent. a The sensor and controller enable the battery to have self-sensing and self-control abilities. b In the future, it is possible to significantly promote system performance through embedded optical fiber sensor-smart batteries by enhancing the mechanical consistency. c Advanced smart batteries in the future will promote the progress of battery systems toward refined management. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [3]. Copyright 2020, published by EU |