Fig. 1 a Illustration of the preparation of DCZ-gel and the multiple interactions within the hydrogels. b FT-IR spectra and c XRD patterns of the cellulosic hydrogels and Zn(OTf)₂. d Cross-sectional FE-SEM image of DCZ-gel

Fig. 2 a Photographs of the rigidity and elasticity behaviors of DCZ-gels. b Tensile stress-strain curves of the cellulosic hydrogels, and c the corresponding toughness and elastic modulus. d Compressive stress-strain curves of the cellulosic hydrogels. e Successive loading-unloading curves under 50% compressive strain for 10 cycles. f The corresponding fracture energy and compressive modulus. g Light transmittance of the cellulosic hydrogels. h Ionic conductivities of Cel-gel and DCZ-gel from alternating current impedance curves. i Photograph of the large-area of DCZ-gel (50 cm × 50 cm)

Fig. 3 Voltage-time profile comparison of Zn||Zn cells using the liquid and DCZ-gel electrolytes at a current density and capacity of 0.5 mA cm⁻²/0.5 mAh cm⁻², and b variated current densities with a capacity of 2 mAh cm⁻². AFM images of Zn foils at c the pristine state and the deposited states after cycling (0.5 mA cm⁻²/0.5 mAh cm⁻²) for 50 cycles in Zn||Zn cells with the d liquid and e DCZ-gel electrolytes. f The corresponding XRD patterns of the Zn foils after cycling. Cycling performance of Zn||Zn cells under g large current density and capacity of 10 mA cm⁻²/10 mAh cm⁻², and h alternating test between Zn plating − stripping cycling (72 cycles, 2 mA cm⁻²/2 mAh cm⁻²) and resting (72 h). i Coulombic efficiency profiles of Zn||Cu cells with the two electrolytes at 5 mA cm⁻²/1 mAh cm⁻² and j the corresponding voltage-capacity profiles

Fig. 4 In situ optical microscopy observations of Zn electro-deposition process at 5 mA cm^-2 for 20 min with a the liquid and b DCZ-gel electrolytes. COMSOL simulations of Zn electrode with c, e the liquid and d, f DCZ-gel electrolytes during plating g Differential ATR-FTIR spectra of the two electrolytes. h Arrhenius curves and the corresponding calculated desolvation activation energies. i Simplified models for DFT calculations of binding energies of Zn²⁺ ion in the two electrolytes. j LSV and k Tafel curves of the three-electrode cells with the liquid and DCZ-gel electrolytes at a scan rate of 1 mV s⁻¹. Schematic diagrams of the proposed mechanisms on the Zn anode surfaces with l the liquid and m DCZ-gel electrolytes

Fig. 5 a Schematic diagram of the PANI/CC cathode, and b the corresponding charge/discharge mechanism. c Cycling performance at 500 mA g^-1 and d the corresponding charge-discharge curves at different cycle numbers. e Rate performance and f the corresponding charge-discharge curves under different current rates from 100 to 5000 mA g^-1. g Long-term cycling performance at 2000 mA g^-1