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From Kill Chain to Kill Web： A Survey on Modeling， Evaluation， and Optimization WANG Chaochen, JIANG Hongru, WANG Buli, XIA Qiaowei, ZHANG Xianchun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 1-8.   Abstract （2724）      PDF（pc） （992KB）（1123）       Knowledge map    Save This paper comprehensively and systematically analyzed the theoretical evolution, model construction, effectiveness evaluation, and optimization methodologies of kill chains and webs. First, the fundamental distinctions between kill chains and kill webs were introduced via conceptual comparative analysis. Then, from the perspective of four key modeling challenges: structured information representation, cooperative system optimization, dynamic adaptability, and intelligent decision-making， the construction mechanisms and technological breakthroughs of various models were investigated. Quantitative evaluation methods for key dimensions, including survivability, resilience, and node importance, were summarized. Following this, strategies for dynamic reconstruction optimization and multi-objective conflict resolution were studied. Finally, future development trends of kill chains and kill webs were projected. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Construction Method of Digital-Intelligent Parallel Battlefield for Air Defense and Anti-Missile Based on Digital Twin WANG Gang, YANG Ke, QUAN Wen, GUO Xiangke, ZHAO Xiaoru Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 1-13.   Abstract （2577）      PDF（pc） （1209KB）（1016）       Knowledge map    Save The establishment of a digital parallel battlefield that integrates the functions of "research, combat, testing, practical operation, and training" serves as an effective and essential supporting measure for enhancing combat command and joint training capabilities, which address future intelligent high-end warfare among major powers. In the air defense and anti-missile realm, constructing a digital parallel battlefield faces several formidable challenges, including configuring complex scenarios, facilitating interactions between virtual and real forces, and simulating combat behaviours. To tackle these issues, the paper employed a digital twin modelling approach grounded in Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to enable the precise configuration of complex scenarios. Based on the Live-Virtual-Constructive (LVC) concept, a distributed simulation architecture combining virtual and real elements was established to realise seamless virtual-real interactions and efficient coordination. In addition, an Agent modelling methodology based on data/rules dual-driven was introduced to simulate intelligent combat behaviours in air defense and anti-missile operations. A multi-branch simulation deduction and auxiliary decision-making framework tailored for the parallel battlefield was constructed, achieving the organic integration of situation analysis, plan formulation, and evaluation for optimal selection. The system development was accomplished by applying the software-defined method, enabling dynamic scheduling of system resources, flexible reconfiguration, and agile deployment. The research results indicate that the newly developed digital-intelligent parallel battlefield for air defense and anti-missile, constructed by the concept of the digital twin, provides robust support for simulation applications across multiple scenarios, including equipment testing, combat experiments, joint training, and command decision-making within the domain of air defense and anti-missile. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research Review of Electromagnetic Interference Mechanism and Anti-Interference Technology for UAVs GE Luqin, DING Shizhou, YAO Qiang, ZHANG Cheng, HUANG Yuchen Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 51-55.   Abstract （2373）      PDF（pc） （960KB）（499）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing the bottleneck of uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) in complex electromagnetic environments, this paper systematically analyzed the classification and action mechanisms of electromagnetic interference (EMI) sources, EMI coupling paths, and nonlinear responses within UAVs. A multi-scale interference theoretical framework to address UAV anti-EMI issues was proposed for constructing. Five key anti-interference technologies were investigated: algorithm-level anti-interference, electromagnetic shielding, dynamic filtering, system-level collaborative protection, and optical fiber transmission technology. Respectively, algorithm-level anti-interference focused on integrating lightweight models with edge computing; electromagnetic shielding aimed to break through the low-frequency efficiency bottleneck; dynamic filtering explored the fusion of neural networks and bionic mechanisms; system-level collaboration established a closed-loop system of “interference identification-dynamic suppression-system reconstruction”; and optical fiber technology realized physical-layer signal isolation. This research offers theoretical and technical solutions for UAV engineering applications in environments with substantial electromagnetic interference, and is of significant importance for enhancing the electromagnetic compatibility of UAVs. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Digital Parallel Battlefield： A Review of Theory and Development Prospects ZHANG Sipei, XU Tianyang, KANG Chuanhua, CI Huipeng, LIU Rui Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 29-39.   Abstract （2152）      PDF（pc） （1035KB）（702）       Knowledge map    Save With the rapid development of information technology, modern warfare is transforming towards digitalisation, networking, and intelligence. As an advanced stage of the digital battlefield, the digital parallel battlefield leverages physical and virtual systems integration to provide innovative solutions for situational awareness, element coordination, and decision optimisation. This paper systematically reviewed the latest research on the digital parallel battlefield, analysing its theoretical foundations, military value, technical architecture, and practical applications. Key challenges within the field were identified, and future development trends were explored. The study highlighted the significant role of the digital parallel battlefield in enhancing joint operational capabilities, optimising command and control efficiency, and innovating military training models. In addition, challenges such as a lack of unified theoretical frameworks, delayed technical standards, and insufficient cross-domain coordination were given. In conclusion, with the continuous integration of artificial intelligence, big data, and other emerging technologies, the digital parallel battlefield will achieve broader applications in intelligence, collaboration, and service-oriented development. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Scene Generation Technology for Cognitive Deception of Intelligent Flying Vehicles ZHOU Yu, JIA Jun, LI Hao, DU Yihui, QIAO Wenyuan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 9-19.   Abstract （2151）      PDF（pc） （6564KB）（122）       Knowledge map    Save When conducting flight perception and decision-making tasks, such as target detection and recognition, and online route planning, intelligent aircraft encounter key scenarios that affect flight safety, including false and missed target alarms, and obstacle avoidance failures. Furthermore, due to the combination explosion of the state space of the data-driven intelligent model algorithm and the black-box characteristics of the computing logic, it is challenging to discover and identify its cognitive deception scenarios. In this study, the spoofing attack method was applied to generate targeted micro-disturbances in the system input, creating scenarios that pose risks and challenges to intelligent aircraft. The intelligent aircraft system was then constantly trained to test its operational limits, thereby evaluating safety-critical boundary scenarios for flying objects. This method revealed potential vulnerabilities that standard testing methods may not be able to detect. Meanwhile, the deceptive tests of intelligent aircraft in different risk scenarios ensured the safety and performance in the most challenging situations. The generation of these complex scenarios is crucial for enhancing the robustness of autonomous flight systems and preparing them for a broader range of real-world challenges. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Intelligentization Development Prospects for Missile Launching System in the Kill Web Combat Style ZHANG Chang, JIANG Xiaoming, YIN Xiang, TONG Yun, ZHU Yulong, ZHAO Zheng Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 46-50.   Abstract （2144）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（150）       Knowledge map    Save The kill web is a new, highly dynamic, and flexible combat form that will be deployed in future wars. A missile launching system, which serves as a fire execution terminal, is an essential part of the kill web. Based on the characteristics of the kill web, this paper analyzed and investigated their deployment in various domains, including missile loading and launching, bidirectional information application, autonomous status monitoring, fault prediction and handling, scenario-driven enablement, self-protection capability, and system architecture. The intelligentization development prospects for missile launching systems in the kill web combat style were systematically studied.This study provides a reference for optimizing and upgrading the traditional missile launching system, as well as for efficient network access. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Aerial Target Threat Assessment Model Based on Improved AHP-CRITIC-TOPSIS GU Chenxing, QUAN Jichuan, HUANG Zhixiong, LIU Guibin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 68-77.   Abstract （2078）      PDF（pc） （1264KB）（157）       Knowledge map    Save There are limitations when using a single approach to assess the aerial target threat. This paper introduced an improved AHP-CRITIC-TOPSIS method for assessing aerial target threats. Initially, a linear weighting approach based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to determine the static threats. Subsequently, a combination method was utilised to perform a dual analysis of subjective and objective weights for dynamic threats, which combined the clustered AHP and the objective process of Criteria Importance　Through Inter-criteria Correlation (CRITIC).After that, the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method was applied to calculate the dynamic threats. Besides, the aerial target threats were categorised into five levels, which were analysed from the perspective of urgency and the corresponding air defence combat requirements. Finally, acase study was conducted to validate the feasibility of the above assessment model. The results showed that the model could integrate both subjective and objective threat characteristics, giving more comprehensive assessment results across multiple dimensions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Edge Chip Deployment Methods for Lightweight Infrared Computational Imaging Reconstruction Algorithms ZHAO Ziyu, WANG Xuquan, MA Jie, XING Yujie, DUN Xiong, WANG Zhanshan, CHENG Xinbin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 85-93.   Abstract （2049）      PDF（pc） （3027KB）（107）       Knowledge map    Save By integrating intelligent algorithm-driven image processing techniques, computational imaging has the potential to transcend the limits of conventional hardware-centric optical systems, enabling optical systems to achieve high performance and a compact design. Focusing on the image reconstruction requirements in lightweight infrared single-lens computational imaging, this study investigated lightweight model deployment methodologies tailored for edge AI chips. Through targeted operator optimisation, model pruning, and quantisation implemented on edge devices, the deployed U-Net reconstruction model achieved a 52.3% reduction in parameters and a 60.3% reduction in computational operations, resulting in a 56% acceleration in edge processing frame rate while sacrificing only 0.91 dB in PSNR and 0.021 in SSIM. Further architectural simplification allowed ultra-high-speed video-rate on-chip image reconstruction exceeding 95 FPS, at the cost of just 1.3 dB PSNR and 0.018 SSIM. The experiments examined edge hardware acceleration for computational single-chip infrared camera reconstruction algorithms. This study provides technical references for engineering applications of lightweight infrared computational imaging systems. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Optimal Design Method of Complex System Based on Resource Optimization ZHANG Rongfu, WANG Jinqiang, LIU Minxia Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 86-94.   Abstract （1925）      PDF（pc） （991KB）（108）       Knowledge map    Save To solve the resource optimisation problem in the modular design of complex systems, a hybrid optimisation method combining fuzzy C-means clustering, genetic algorithm, simulated annealing, and immune selection mechanism was proposed in this study. This method first used the fuzzy C-means clustering algorithm to analyse the correlation between component functional structures, generating initial module partitions. Then, it optimised the module partitions using an improved genetic algorithm. The integration of simulated annealing significantly enhanced the local search ability of the algorithm. At the same time, the immune selection mechanism maintained population diversity through operations including elite retention, gene exchange, and insertion mutation, further improving the algorithm's global search ability and stability. The results show that the proposed method significantly optimises the cohesion and coupling of modules and can effectively improve the quality and efficiency of modular design. In addition, the process presents an ideal balance between calculation speed and optimisation accuracy, which is particularly suitable for industrial scenarios having high requirements for independence, scalability and cost control. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Thoughts and Explorations on the Construction of Digital Parallel Battlefield QIAN Xiaochao, WANG Zhihao, LU Zhifeng Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 14-22.   Abstract （1883）      PDF（pc） （1515KB）（589）       Knowledge map    Save The digital parallel battlefield represents a precise mapping from the physical to the digital space, transcending the traditional capability boundaries of simulation and facilitating cross-domain, cross-level, and more efficient applications. Based on the critical requirements for building the digital parallel battlefield, this paper studied overseas and domestic research status. Through comparative analysis of the gaps between current capabilities and actual needs, the paper deeply analysed the current challenges' root causes, which were characterised by “diverse constructions, difficult sharing, and high costs”. In addition, several key technologies were discussed in detail, including the overall architectural design, the multi-branch quick deduction, the counter-design of the blue team with game strategy, the integration of virtual-real parallel systems, the experiment design and comprehensive evaluation, etc. Finally, the paper proposed recommendations for future practical explorations, emphasising directions including “physical-digital synergy, co-evolution, collaborative operations, and sustainable development”. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Development Status and Application Prospect of Continuous Rotating Detonation Engine CHEN Zheng, LI Xiaolong, XU Guangchuan, ZHAO Wenwen, DU Yihua, YIN Wei, MA Hu Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 27-37.   Abstract （1838）      PDF（pc） （20538KB）（99）       Knowledge map    Save Continuous rotating detonation combustion, which is characterized by high efficiency, safety, and environmental friendliness, and is capable of sustaining combustion with a single ignition, has gradually attracted the attention worldwide and is considered a revolutionary aerospace propulsion technology. In this paper, firstly, the power technology advantages, detonation mechanism, and application directions of rotating detonation engines were systematically reviewed. Then, the key research progress in recent years on ramjet engines, rocket engines, and gas turbine engines that use continuous detonation mode was summarized. Finally, the key issues faced in the engineering application of continuous detonation combustion engines were studied, and the future development trend was projected. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Cooperative Deployment Algorithm for Marine Fleet Detection Nodes Based on Constrained Reinforcement Learning DU Junnan, SHUAI Yixian, CHEN Ding, WANG Min, ZHOU Jinpeng Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 95-103.   Abstract （1778）      PDF（pc） （1272KB）（140）       Knowledge map    Save This paper proposed a cooperative deployment algorithm for naval fleet detection nodes based on constrained reinforcement learning to address the coordinated deployment of detection nodes in naval fleet formations. First, the method of dividing grids with regular hexagons was employed to design the grid. The battlefield space was modelled based on the battlefield space feature expression optimisation model of the graph neural network. Then, taking the formation's overall detection range and interception depth as the main optimisation objectives and considering constraints such as formation combat damage, deployment formation, ship orientation, and communication range, an intelligent agent model for the collaborative deployment of detection nodes was produced. Finally, the collaboration deployment intelligent agent model is trained in the air defense combat scenario of the US naval vessel formation. The simulation results show that the fleet deployment positions are optimized by the cooperative deployment algorithm proposed in this paper and the overall interception effectiveness of the fleet is improved by 13.1%. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A 3D Modeling Method for Urban Combat Environments Based on 3D Gaussian Splatting Technology CHENG Yuanhang, CHEN Gang, CHEN Zhuo Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 66-72.   Abstract （1744）      PDF（pc） （776KB）（367）       Knowledge map    Save Urban combat is a focal point in intelligent warfare, and constructing high-fidelity 3D models of battlefield environments is critical for enhancing situational awareness. Traditional modelling methods face challenges, including oblique photogrammetry, low reconstruction efficiency and stringent data acquisition requirements. This paper studied the theory and application of 3D Gaussian splash technology using the 3D modelling of the urban combat environment. It outlined two technical concepts for multi-source heterogeneous data integration and object-oriented modelling employing 3DGS as future research directions. First, sparse point clouds were initialised via Structure from Motion (SfM) technology, combined with Gaussian Splatting to optimise scene representation, enabling high-precision point cloud rendering. Second, the proposed method was compared with traditional oblique photogrammetry to validate its advantages in modelling efficiency, memory utilisation, and lighting simulation capabilities. Finally, two technical frameworks were introduced: a multi-source heterogeneous data fusion scheme and a building-and-vegetation object-oriented modelling approach, giving novel solutions for 3D modelling in urban combat environments. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Trajectory Design for Mars Entry of Variable-Configuration Glider HUANG Junyang, YANG Bowen, JIA Jun, CHEN Jinbao, LIU Yanbin, CHEN Boyi Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 104-112.   Abstract （1731）      PDF（pc） （2249KB）（50）       Knowledge map    Save To resolve the trajectory design problem of morphing glide vehicles during Mars atmospheric entry, this study investigated a trajectory optimization method that allows the morphing degree to be used as an auxiliary control variable. An aerodynamic model for the morphing vehicle was established, and the Mars entry optimal control problem was transformed into a nonlinear programming problem using the Gauss pseudo-spectral method. Under multiple constraints, trajectory optimization simulations were conducted with the flight range taken as the performance index. Simulation results show that incorporating the morphing degree as a control variable enables effective trajectory planning for Mars entry. Compared to fixed-configuration vehicles, the morphing vehicle reduces drag through adaptive shape transformation, thereby decreasing mechanical energy loss during the initial flight phase. The flight range was improved by 10.4%, achieving superior performance metrics. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Credibility Evaluation of Parallel Simulation： Current Status， Challenges， and Prospects LIU Fei, YU Yang, KUANG Yenian Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 23-28.   Abstract （1597）      PDF（pc） （589KB）（335）       Knowledge map    Save Parallel simulation enables rapid prediction, decision support, and performance evaluation of future evolution via creating a simulation mirror system parallel to the exact system. However, parallel simulation faces challenges such as large scale, complex virtual and real interaction, and multi-level resolution model fusion, which affect its credibility evaluation. This paper discussed the challenges faced by the credibility evaluation of parallel simulation systems and provided recommendations, in order to provide ideas for researching and applying credible evaluations of parallel simulations. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Study on the Architecture of New Generation Resilience Combat System CAO Meng, ZHU Dezheng, WANG Zhengwei Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 56-62.   Abstract （1583）      PDF（pc） （1283KB）（296）       Knowledge map    Save Driven by the rapid development of command information systems, the future space warfare is accelerating, along with the intensity of confrontation. As the core hub of the combat system, the command information system faces threats, including physical destruction and cyberattacks. Focusing on the failure, paralysis, and even damage of some nodes or units in the command information system, the basic characteristics of the new generation of resilience combat system capabilities were studied from the perspective of capability generation. The resilience architecture of the command information system was developed, and the technical layout of the resilience combat system was preliminarily planned, providing a basic framework for building a resilient combat system. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Design and Verification of UAV Cooperative Defense Strategy Based on Reinforcement Learning LI Yijia, LI Jianuo, KE Liangjun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 73-85.   Abstract （1569）      PDF（pc） （1727KB）（410）       Knowledge map    Save The drone swarm confrontation is built based on the OODA decision loop and employs multi-agent deep reinforcement learning for algorithm design to find the optimal collaborative defence strategy for drone swarm. Specifically, a QMIX-based single-layer decision algorithm is developed to tackle contribution allocation and high-dimensional space challenges in drone cooperation. In this paper, a hierarchical decision-making model integrating rule-based methods and reinforcement learning was proposed. This model first adopted a decision layer with rule-based or HMM intention recognition to analyze combat scenarios and schedule drones, followed by an action layer utilizing the QMIX algorithm to output actions. To verify the performance of the proposed algorithms, this study established a controllable and observable simulation platform using Python and Unity and produced a challenging defensive game problem. Experiments quantitatively evaluated defence strategies in perspectives of cooperation effectiveness, resource efficiency, and generalisation. The results show that each index of hierarchical decision-making is significantly better than that of single-layer decision making, and the winning rate has been dramatically improved. The HMM-based hierarchical strategy shows the best performance, offering a promising new approach to drone swarm defence. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Prospect and Challenges of Using Morphing Technology in High-Speed Vehicles in the Near Space YANG Jiandong, ZHAO Wenwen, LI Xiaolong, YIN Wei, LIU Wei, CAI Kerong Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 38-45.   Abstract （1563）      PDF（pc） （1122KB）（105）       Knowledge map    Save Morphing technology applied to hypersonic vehicles in near-space can enhance flight performance, penetration capability, and combat effectiveness, obtaining a broad application prospect. This paper focused on the application prospects and challenges of morphing technology in hypersonic near-space vehicles. It comprehensively summarised the research progress and status of morphing technology from three aspects: morphing methods, morphing drive, and morphing control. It delved into the characteristics and application prospects of hypersonic near-space vehicles, and systematically identified three significant difficulties: overall vehicle design, morphing mechanisms design, and flight control design. To resolve the above findings, this study proposed several key future technologies, including multidisciplinary coupled overall design for morphing vehicles, integrated deformation-bearing-thermal protection structure design, high-response-speed/high-precision/high-power-to-weight-ratio servo design, high-precision aerodynamic prediction and modelling, rapid aerodynamic elasticity analysis methods, and high-precision control under strongly coupled nonlinear conditions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Analysis of Air Strike’s Patterns Based on Recent Local Conflicts LIAO Xin, ZHU Ying, YANG Tao Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 20-26.   Abstract （1550）      PDF（pc） （1783KB）（200）       Knowledge map    Save To analyze the development patterns of airstrikes, this paper examined recent local conflicts, including the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and the Russo-Ukrainian conflict. The modern battlefield's operational domain is expanded from the physical domain to encompass the information, cognitive, and social domains. In terms of air strike equipment, there is a trend towards differentiation based on stealth technology, focusing on near-space hypersonic and low-altitude, low-speed extremes. Low-altitude dominance has become a focal point of contention. Air strike methods are closely linked to battlefield space, characterized by multi-domain coordination, mixed equipment use, and multiple-wave saturation. The "complexity" led by "scale + intelligence" is a new form of combat effectiveness. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Mercator-Projection-Based Online Trajectory Planning Method for Cruise Vehicles YAO Jiangchuan, ZHANG Mingen, WANG Xiaogang, E Bin, CUI Naigang Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 104-110.   Abstract （1369）      PDF（pc） （800KB）（70）       Knowledge map    Save This paper proposed a Mercator transformation-based planning method for the online trajectory planning of cruise vehicles subject to no-fly zone constraints. By directly incorporating the planned trajectory's heading angle variation into the planning plane's higher-order derivatives, this approach explicitly characterised the energy expenditure of the trajectory without introducing dynamic constraints. The proposed method leverages quadratic programming (QP) optimisation properties to improve efficiency. It formulated the online trajectory planning problem under the QP framework, simultaneously addressing energy consumption and no-fly zone constraints. This formulation significantly enhanced computational efficiency and solution optimality. Simulation results demonstrate that the method can efficiently generate smooth, energy-efficient, and conveniently trackable trajectories while strictly complying with no-fly zone restrictions, achieving effective online trajectory planning for cruise vehicles. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）