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A Review on Intelligent Radar Target Recognition Methods XU Qiang, MA Yuehua, XU Ke, PAN Jun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 1-9.   Abstract （541）      PDF（pc） （1230KB）（736）       Knowledge map    Save Intelligent radar target recognition is a key technology in modern military informatization and civilian high-end equipment. The false target interference and upgraded camouflage techniques in complex electromagnetic environments cause the performance degradation of traditional recognition algorithms, thus prompting the successive proposal of a series of advanced algorithms. Based on expounding the typical characteristics of intelligent radar target recognition, this paper systematically analyzed the constituent elements of recognition frameworks using traditional feature engineering, machine learning, and deep learning. Then, by comparing the characteristics of different methods in feature extraction and performance evaluation, the development trends and challenges of intelligent recognition technology were examined from the perspectives of practical application, large model empowerment, and other dimensions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Overview of the Development of Key Technologies for Distributed Collaborative Combat in Typical Combat Scenarios TAN Zuohong, WAN Xiaobo, LIU Wei, PAN Tonglin, FAN Jin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 10-16.   Abstract （539）      PDF（pc） （4924KB）（1248）       Knowledge map    Save With the deep integration of artificial intelligence models represented by ChatGPT and DeepSeek in the field of weapon equipment, distributed collaborative combat is revolutionizing future warfare. This paper reviewed the concept of distributed collaborative warfare, systematically elaborating on situational awareness, task planning, battle damage assessment, and data link information transmission systems within its framework. It systematically analyzed the key technologies of three typical combat scenarios: manned/unmanned platform collaboration, unmanned swarm, and air defense and anti-missile. The respective development trends were discussed, providing reference for the research and development of technology and system construction for future warfare. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Comprehensive Review of Key Technologies for Deflectable-Nose Missiles WANG Jianlei, ZHANG Zhipu, KONG Xiaojun, ZHANG Shunjia, GONG Chunlin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 1-15.   Abstract （387）      PDF（pc） （4742KB）（413）       Knowledge map    Save Conventional air-to-air missiles with aerodynamic control surfaces have limitations in terminal interception against high-speed, highly maneuverable targets. At the same time, the presence of exposed fins also constrains the loading efficiency on fighter jets. As a feasible and efficient control approach, nose deflection control technology has gradually demonstrated considerable engineering potential. It is expected to provide valuable reference information for the development of next-generation missile control technologies. This paper first systematically reviewed the historical development and current research status of nose deflection control. Then, it provided a comprehensive analysis of research endeavors related to aerodynamic characteristics, configuration optimization, dynamic modeling, and control system design, as well as the mechanism design and simulation of nose-deflection-based missiles. Finally, this paper summarized the significant research progress and anticipated the future trends in the development of nose deflection control technology. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Occluded SAR Target Recognition Based on Multi-View Mutual Learning Network REN Haohao, CUI Shan, JIANG Xinyu, LIANG Shuyi, ZHOU Yun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 25-34.   Abstract （380）      PDF（pc） （7845KB）（160）       Knowledge map    Save For the problem of SAR target recognition in occluded scenarios, this paper proposes a novel method called the multi-view mutual learning network. The proposed method is a mutual learning framework consisting of a multi-view complementary feature learning network and a recognition network, which aims to improve the recognition model's feature extraction ability through knowledge interaction at the feature level. Specifically, to enhance the recognition network's feature extraction ability, this study developed an attribute-scattering-center-guided hierarchical feature extraction method. In view of the implementation challenges with target features in occluded scenarios, a multi-view complementary learning method was employed to comprehensively characterize target features by leveraging complementary features across different SAR images at adjacent azimuth angles. Contrastive experimental results on the MSTAR dataset show that the proposed method performs well across varying levels of occlusion. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Design and Configuration Concept of Air Defense Weapon Command and Control Architecture for Edge Computing TIAN Ye, AN Siwei, PI Li, SUN Chengyu, LI Longyue Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 45-52.   Abstract （351）      PDF（pc） （1211KB）（254）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing the issue that traditional command and control (C2) architecture is intricate in satisfying the requirements of modern air defense combat systems, this paper analyzes the functional prerequisites of the air defense weapon C2 system and proposes a three-tier collaborative distributed architecture comprising the "core layer, edge layer, and access layer," developed in accordance with the principles of edge computing. The hardware configuration and selection scheme for the air defense weapon C2 system were designed, and the development requirements for its operating system were proposed, providing innovative ideas and methods for the intelligent upgrading of air defense weapon systems. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Analysis of the Development Trends of the Front Air Defense Equipment System of the US Army LI Hangyu, SIMA Ke Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 17-24.   Abstract （325）      PDF（pc） （6543KB）（626）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing emerging threats on future land battlefields, including the increasing spread of low-altitude threats, a rapidly growing number of environmental disturbances, and ineffectiveness of defense systems, the US Army is accelerating the development of battlefield air defense equipment. The development focuses on systematization, networking, and intelligence, aiming to build a multi-layered, flexible, and joint air and missile defense system spanning all domains, to adapt to the complex battlefield environments in the future. This article reviewed the current state of the US Army's front air defense system and equipment, analyzed the main challenges they face, and offered a trend analysis of the system architecture, force grouping, system capabilities, and equipment forms of their future front air defense systems. This study provides insights and a reference for the development of our domestic army's air and missile defense equipment. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Multi-UAV Cooperative Target Search Method Based on AMDE-DMPC Algorithm CUI Siyuan, LI Hao, FAN Xiangyu, NI Lei, HOU Jiahang Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 35-44.   Abstract （324）      PDF（pc） （2421KB）（144）       Knowledge map    Save Aiming at the cooperative search problem of multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for dynamic and static targets, a cooperative target search method of multiple UAVs based on an improved differential evolution algorithm (Adaptive Multi-strategy Differential Evolution, AMDE) and distributed model predictive control (DMPC) was constructed. First, the battlefield environment of the mission area was described by uncertainty and the target prior probability. Based on environmental exploration benefits, target detection benefits, and obstacle-avoidance constraints, a fitness function model for collaborative target search was established. Then, the AMDE algorithm, integrating multi-strategy adaptive selection and a double-layer adaptive parameter adjustment mechanism, was designed. Combined with distributed model predictive control, the optimal search track sequence was determined to complete the cooperative target search. The simulation results demonstrate that this method can effectively increase the likelihood of target discovery and improve the timeliness of task completion, while also exhibiting good efficiency and robustness. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Deep Learning-Based Rotation Detection Algorithms for Ship Wakes in SAR Images XIA Yilin, LIU Gang, YAN Congqiang, CAI Yunze Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 64-74.   Abstract （288）      PDF（pc） （21764KB）（141）       Knowledge map    Save This paper proposed a deep learning-based rotated bounding box detection algorithm for ship wake detection in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images. The proposed algorithm addressed the issue of background pixel redundancy in horizontal bounding box detection algorithms and the complex design of traditional detection methods, which fail to identify curved wakes effectively. The overall network framework of the algorithm consisted of three core components: a feature extraction module, a feature fusion module, and a prediction head network. The feature extraction module was responsible for extracting key feature information from the input SAR images. The feature fusion module further integrated these features to enhance the model's perception of the wake morphology. Finally, the prediction head network would provide precise target localization based on the fused features. The results of the rotated bounding box detection were acquired, including the center point position and rotation angle. Experimental results show that compared to other rotated target detection algorithms, the proposed algorithm achieves higher accuracy in SAR image ship wake detection tasks and effectively distinguishes between targets and backgrounds, thus accomplishing the task of SAR image ship wake detection under various scenarios. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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LLM-Based Intelligent Association Between Protocol Templates and Object Models ZHANG Yusheng, XU Yonghui, ZHOU Yuqi, DU Jiang, WEI Changan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 94-102.   Abstract （269）      PDF（pc） （3512KB）（235）       Knowledge map    Save To bridge the semantic gap resulting from the transmission of external products via heterogeneous communication protocols, in conjunction with the operation of the joint test platform utilizing the built-in standard object model (SDO) subscription-publish mechanism, this paper introduces an intelligent association method and system for protocol template-object models founded on large language models (LLMs). The process took the XML protocol template and interface description model as input, and generated the intermediate representation through structured preprocessing. The local knowledge base was constructed under the retrieval, augmentation, and generation (RAG) framework to uniformly store SDO definitions, historical association pairs, and proprietary corpora. And through the “dual-channel index,” combined with sparse keyword matching and dense semantic vector retrieval, highly recalled candidates for protocol elements and SDO attributes were generated. Subsequently, a lightweight, high-performance large-scale reasoning model was adopted to perform semantic disambiguation and consistency verification on candidate pairs, and the optimal match was output alongside the prompt-word norms and rule constraints. For “strange inputs” such as abbreviations, pinyin, and mixed Chinese-English writing, a multi-agent diversion parsing strategy was introduced, significantly enhancing the robustness against non-standard expressions. The system ultimately automatically generated a standardized XML association relationship list, supporting traceable evidence fragment backlinks and threshold filtering to avoid low-correlation strong matching. The prototype software integrated the full-process modules of file parsing, knowledge retrieval, intelligent matching, and result export. In verifying typical protocol templates and object model scenarios, it demonstrates robust alignment capabilities and engineering availability across languages and naming systems, providing an efficient and scalable semantic mapping path for rapid access to external resources by the joint test platform. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Interception Capability Assessment of Hypersonic Vehicle Defense Systems YU Shuiming, CHAO Tao, MEI Zheng, HUO Ju Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 25-30.   Abstract （232）      PDF（pc） （835KB）（342）       Knowledge map    Save To enhance the operational effectiveness of intercepting hypersonic vehicles, this study evaluates the interception capability of hypersonic vehicle defense systems. An improved Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method was proposed utilizing the grey relational analysis model to assess the interception capability of defense systems from three perspectives: the penetration ability of the vehicle, the detection performance of early-warning radar, and the interception effectiveness of missiles. The validity of the model was verified through a case study. The research results show valuable insights for the design and deployment of defense systems. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Resource Restructuring Technology of High Density Launch Control System ZHU Yulong, QIAO Jinxin, WEI Ruichuan, CAO Jianfeng, DING Liping Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 98-104.   Abstract （225）      PDF（pc） （849KB）（58）       Knowledge map    Save With the growing complexity of combat missions, the requirement for high-density launch control systems is becoming urgent. This paper, from the perspective of ground equipment, combined classic design concepts, including cold and hot backup, and introduced resource reorganization technology. It aimed to achieve dynamic reorganization and flexible allocation of launch control system resources, thereby maximizing resource utilization, improving resource efficiency, and boosting actual combat effectiveness. Signaling exchange technology was adopted to construct a new launch control system architecture, and internal resources were categorized and systematically planned. Then, a systematic analysis of the interdependencies among mission resources, equipment resources, and launch channel resources was conducted. Corresponding resource reconfiguration principles were formulated, and an effective resource reconfiguration control mechanism was developed to achieve dynamic resource optimization. By applying resource reconfiguration technology to the launch control system, this study has developed a tailored methodology for the resource reconfiguration system. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Study on Simulation Data-Driven Fault Diagnosis Technology for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles RONG Guang, ZHANG Yexin, TANG Chao, CHEN Jinbao, ZHOU Yiling, WANG Jianyuan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 73-84.   Abstract （199）      PDF（pc） （2160KB）（140）       Knowledge map    Save This paper addresses the increasingly complex fault diagnosis requirements of UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) systems by proposing a data-driven multi-model fusion fault diagnosis method. A deep learning model library incorporating CNNs, LSTMs, and RNNs was constructed to perform modular fault diagnosis across four key subsystems: guidance control, electromechanical, power, and airframe structure. Experiments employed a self-built simulation dataset, and model performance was evaluated using metrics including the confusion matrix, accuracy, recall, and F1 score. The results demonstrate that all subsystem models exhibit robust diagnostic capabilities, with the power subsystem achieving the highest accuracy, followed by the avionics subsystem. This technical approach offers a systematic solution for intelligent UAV fault diagnosis and can be applied to fault prediction in other complex equipment. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Requirements and Characteristics of Airborne Platform Active Defense Missions in Future Air Combat LYU Ruiheng, ZHU Wensheng, ZHAO Hanxi, LI Xiaolong, GAO Sen Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 16-24.   Abstract （190）      PDF（pc） （9617KB）（413）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, ongoing innovation within the military sector across tactics, technological capabilities of military systems, and equipment technologies has resulted in future air combat environments where airborne platforms will confront increasingly significant threats. These threats will be characterized by attributes such as high stealth, high intensity, comprehensive coverage, and multiple layers. As a result, the requirement for active defense capabilities has become increasingly urgent. Various international initiatives have put forward numerous concepts and initiated preliminary technical research. However, practical application in real combat conditions remains a challenge. This article focuses on the active defense mission of airborne platforms in future air combat. Starting with the threats these platforms face, it investigated the key requirements for active defense capabilities, systems, and technologies. Combining these with the latest developments in military equipment technology, this study summarizes the typical characteristics of active defense missions for airborne platforms. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Countermeasures of Long-Range Precision Strike Against the Sea Based on Space-Based Imaging Information WANG Yue, SHEN Peizhi, WEN Zhi, SUN Yanli Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 47-52.   Abstract （186）      PDF（pc） （907KB）（294）       Knowledge map    Save The reconnaissance and detection of time-sensitive targets at sea is fundamental to the long-range, accurate strike at sea. The timeliness and accuracy of the target information are critical to the strike’s effectiveness. Given the urgent need for Marine visual support for long-range precision strike, this paper analyzed the limitations of common reconnaissance platforms, including ocean radar stations, outpost ships, and early warning aircraft, in far-sea remote reconnaissance. Then, focusing on the practical application of space-based imaging satellites to remote sea reconnaissance, the constraints existing in their use were systematically reviewed, and countermeasures to guide long-range precision strikes with space-based imaging information from the perspective of technical mechanisms were proposed. This study effectively addresses the problem of reconnaissance and detection of remote maritime time-sensitive targets. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Multi-Agent Training for Maritime Joint Air Defence Based on a Multi-Algorithm Framework with Adaptive Hierarchical Sharing YE Qichang, WAN Shizheng, LI Yueshu, CHEN Zhumei, LIU Shanglin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 121-128.   Abstract （182）      PDF（pc） （1742KB）（103）       Knowledge map    Save Multi-agent training is widely applied in modern maritime joint air defence operations. When two opposing parties independently choose different learning algorithms, it is often necessary to ensure implementation consistency and to manage resource allocation. To achieve this, a cross-agent shared fully connected layer is typically employed as a common representational foundation. However, a static choice between “fully shared” and “fully private” structures fails to balance policy consistency with individual differentiation. At the same time, discrepancies in behaviour distribution and gradient statistics across algorithms may amplify negative transfer and training variance. To overcome the above challenges, this paper introduced adaptive layer sharing (ALS) across heterogeneous algorithms, enabling learnable gating mechanisms to dynamically weight between shared and private branches at every layer. In a small-scale, single-machine experimental setup, standardized and reproducible protocols were established to record and report game outcomes and compliance. When ALS was activated, the learned gating distributions and thresholded topologies would be extracted, creating an implementable and observable engineering baseline that provides a clear structural and metric foundation for future large-scale and multi-task evaluations. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A High-Confidence Jamming Digital Model Construction Technology Based on Live Equipment Data-Driven Approaches LIU Yuxu, ZHANG Yexin, YAN Tianxu, ZHU Weihua Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 114-120.   Abstract （181）      PDF（pc） （1683KB）（124）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing the issue of low consistency and credibility of traditional interference digital models compared to indoor interference generators, this paper proposes an intelligent optimization technique for interference digital models based on indoor data verification. Through the development of a multi-domain loss function that incorporates temporal, spectral, and energy aspects as the verification metric, coupled with the implementation of a Bayesian optimization strategy for the intelligent tuning of the interference digital model parameters, the congruence between the interference digital model and the indoor interference generator has been attained at a level of up to 90%. This high-consistency interference digital model, combined with indoor data, can be used to construct digital interference scenarios. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Simulation Methods of Turbulence Effects in Infrared Scene Simulation WU Xin, HUANG Zhonghua, ZHOU Yuxuan, FAN Haojiang, LIU Delian Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 62-72.   Abstract （170）      PDF（pc） （4556KB）（77）       Knowledge map    Save In intricate and changing atmospheric conditions, turbulence may cause infrared images to appear blurry, distorted, or jittery. These effects significantly impact the performance evaluation of infrared imaging systems. A critical consideration in infrared scene simulation is an area that has garnered increasing attention from researchers in recent years. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a turbulence simulation model for dynamic infrared scenes based on the refractive-index structure constant. First, using measurement data and an infrared radiation transfer model, a three-dimensional, real-time infrared simulation scene was constructed. Then, by modeling variations in the atmospheric refractive index caused by non-uniformities in air density and temperature, the blurring and jitter effects induced by turbulence were simulated, enabling the generation of high-quality, highly realistic turbulence-degraded images. This study introduces an innovative method for simulating turbulence effects in dynamic infrared scenes, offering both theoretical insights and data to support further investigation into how turbulence influences infrared imaging systems and how to potentially mitigate its effects. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Principle and Errors Analysis of Single Pulse Amplitude Comparison Direction Finding System LIU Yang, WANG Weiting, LIU Kaiyuan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 91-97.   Abstract （165）      PDF（pc） （1031KB）（199）       Knowledge map    Save Amplitude-comparison direction finding is a widely used direction-finding technology in electronic warfare. However, due to its inherent direction-finding principles, the amplitude-comparison direction-finding systems inevitably exhibit random and systematic errors. To improve the accuracy of direction-finding systems, this paper analyzed the principles of mono-pulse amplitude-comparison direction-finding systems. Through theoretical study, the influencing variables at the system output end were identified. A comparison was made between the angle-of-arrival resolution in dual-channel and quad-channel amplitude-comparison direction-finding systems. After that, systematic errors under four conditions were investigated, including channel imbalance, beam configuration, beam width, and voltage amplification. The validity of these analyses was verified through simulations, providing theoretical references for the design and improvement of related equipment. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Inversion and Interpretation of Target Electromagnetic Scattering Characteristics Based on Measurement and Computation ZHANG Xiaokun, YAN Tianxu, PENG Guopeng, WANG Long, ZHANG Yixuan, ZHAO Xunwang Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 85-93.   Abstract （152）      PDF（pc） （2739KB）（324）       Knowledge map    Save This paper systematically investigates a measurement-based computational approach for the inversion and interpretation of target electromagnetic scattering characteristics, focusing on the issues of stringent site requirements, high costs, and the limited capacity to reveal the physical mechanisms of target scattering associated with conventional Radar Cross Section (RCS) measurement techniques. First, high-precision electromagnetic near-field data of the target were acquired within a limited distance. Subsequently, the target's far-field scattering characteristics were accurately reconstructed using near-field-to-far-field transformation techniques. Then, the transformed data were processed by a parametric scattering-center extraction algorithm to invert the macroscopic scattering response into a set of attributed scattering-center parameters with precise physical meanings. By comprehensively analyzing the attributed scattering centers as well as the Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) image, the link between“data measurement” and “physical mechanism interpretation ” was established, providing practical support for potential applications such as target shape optimization, recognition algorithm development, electromagnetic characteristic modeling, and professional wargame simulation. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Light Transmission Performance in a Low-Temperature Nitrogen Environment CAI Aifeng, TIAN Yi, TIAN Yusong, SHE Shaobo, LI Chunyu, WU Jingyi Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 103-113.   Abstract （147）      PDF（pc） （5711KB）（129）       Knowledge map    Save In a semi-physical simulation test rig for infrared guidance control systems, a low-temperature nitrogen environment is required to emulate the cold background of space. To ensure that the distortion of the light beam emitted by the infrared target simulator during transmission in nitrogen remains within the permissible range of the experiment, this paper establishes a flexible cold chamber simulation model for a low-temperature nitrogen environment. After experimental verification, the internal temperature distribution of the freezing chamber under various conditions was determined, and its optical transmission performance was subsequently evaluated based on this. Results show that under the rated operating condition, with an inlet velocity of 0.05 m/s and an inlet temperature of 153 K, the temperature standard deviation within the beam is 1.48 K, and the peak-to-valley optical path difference (Rδ) is 1.23 μm. The Strehl ratio (S) was 0.965, indicating a minimal effect of low-temperature nitrogen on optical transmission. Inlet velocity has a more significant influence on optical transmission performance. When the velocity ranges from 0.02 m/s to 0.07 m/s, the Rδ and S vary between 0.47-3.43 μm and 0.845-0.978, respectively. Notably, when the inlet velocity decreases to 0.015 m/s, the S drops to 0.798, resulting in the system degrading into a non-ideal imaging state. Additionally, an increase in position angle caused by the rotation of the upper cryogenic chamber decreases the threshold for temperature standard deviation in ideal imaging systems. Compared to a 0° position angle, this threshold decreases from 3.53 K to 3.23 K. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）