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Research and Development of High-Performance Magnesium Alloys for Aerospace Applications SU Yang, HAO Liang, LI Yangxin, ZENG Xiaoqin Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 1-11.   Abstract （2762）      PDF（pc） （2081KB）（1064）       Knowledge map    Save Magnesium alloys, currently recognized as the lightest structural metallic material in practical engineering applications, have broad prospects for application in the aerospace field, where lightweight demands are increasing. However, the three major bottleneck issues, “relatively low absolute strength”, “ weak deformation capacity”, and “insufficient corrosion resistance”, greatly limit the application scope of traditional magnesium alloys. Based on a review of the latest application status of magnesium alloys in the aerospace field, this paper has elaborated on the research progress of high-strength, tough, and corrosion-resistant magnesium alloys and prospected the development trends of high-performance magnesium alloys in future aerospace applications. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Construction Method of Digital-Intelligent Parallel Battlefield for Air Defense and Anti-Missile Based on Digital Twin WANG Gang, YANG Ke, QUAN Wen, GUO Xiangke, ZHAO Xiaoru Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 1-13.   Abstract （2212）      PDF（pc） （1209KB）（538）       Knowledge map    Save The establishment of a digital parallel battlefield that integrates the functions of "research, combat, testing, practical operation, and training" serves as an effective and essential supporting measure for enhancing combat command and joint training capabilities, which address future intelligent high-end warfare among major powers. In the air defense and anti-missile realm, constructing a digital parallel battlefield faces several formidable challenges, including configuring complex scenarios, facilitating interactions between virtual and real forces, and simulating combat behaviours. To tackle these issues, the paper employed a digital twin modelling approach grounded in Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to enable the precise configuration of complex scenarios. Based on the Live-Virtual-Constructive (LVC) concept, a distributed simulation architecture combining virtual and real elements was established to realise seamless virtual-real interactions and efficient coordination. In addition, an Agent modelling methodology based on data/rules dual-driven was introduced to simulate intelligent combat behaviours in air defense and anti-missile operations. A multi-branch simulation deduction and auxiliary decision-making framework tailored for the parallel battlefield was constructed, achieving the organic integration of situation analysis, plan formulation, and evaluation for optimal selection. The system development was accomplished by applying the software-defined method, enabling dynamic scheduling of system resources, flexible reconfiguration, and agile deployment. The research results indicate that the newly developed digital-intelligent parallel battlefield for air defense and anti-missile, constructed by the concept of the digital twin, provides robust support for simulation applications across multiple scenarios, including equipment testing, combat experiments, joint training, and command decision-making within the domain of air defense and anti-missile. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research Progress on High-Temperature Resistant Wave Transparent Silicon Nitride Based Ceramics YAO Dongxu, YU Xing, GU Hao, LI Jiahao, LIU Wen, LI Rui Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 46-57.   Abstract （2133）      PDF（pc） （2858KB）（720）       Knowledge map    Save Silicon nitride ceramics comprehensively have excellent properties such as high strength, high elastic modulus, high-temperature resistance, thermal shock resistance, and low dielectric constant. They are the major candidate materials for high-temperature wave transmitting radome. Currently, research in silicon nitride-based ceramics and composites is popular. This paper has reviewed the research status of silicon nitride ceramics, SiALON ceramics, silicon oxynitride ceramics, nitrogen oxide ceramics, and their composite materials in the past five years. Through the combination of material design and different molding processes, including 3D printing, chemical vapor infiltration (CVI), and precursor impregnation cracking (PIP), the preparation of high-strength-low dielectric silicon nitride-based ceramic materials was acquired, which enables the selection of materials and design support for wavetransparent components of high-Mach vehicles. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research Progress on Lightweight Resin-Based Thermal Protection Materials LI Liang, REN Zhiyi, WANG Peng, LUO Yi, SU Zhe, CAI Hongxiang, TIAN Hao, NIU Bo, LONG Donghui Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 58-75.   Abstract （2119）      PDF（pc） （5237KB）（850）       Knowledge map    Save Thermal protection systems are significantly important in modern aerospace engineering. When the new generation of vehicles evolves towards higher Mach flight speeds, there is an increasing demand for thermal protection systems that could combine high-temperature resistance, lightweight construction, and integrated thermal protection and insulation. This paper has reviewed the research progress on lightweight resin-based thermal protection materials domestically and internationally and analyzed their development trends in enhanced oxidation resistance, nanoporous structures, and gradient designs. Besides, this study has introduced the thermal protection and insulation mechanisms as well as the mechanical failure mechanisms of nanoporous resin-based materials, thus providing valuable insights for effective design and fabrication. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Review of Equivalent Model-Based State of Charge Estimation Algorithms of Lithium-Ion Battery TANG Diyin, WANG Yufu, ZHENG Wenjian, HUANG Xucong, XING Yalan Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 104-111.   Abstract （2106）      PDF（pc） （1086KB）（1389）       Knowledge map    Save Due to their high energy density and long life, Lithium-ion batteries are widely applied in fields such as aerospace and smart driving. Accurate estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of a battery is critical. In recent years, SOC estimation methods based on battery equivalent models have been widely used because oftheir advantages of accurate estimation and easy understanding. This paper has elaborated on the classification of battery equivalent models, SOC estimation algorithms, and factors affecting SOC estimation from three aspects. Firstly, the common types of battery models and their characteristics were analyzed; secondly, the commonly used SOC estimation techniques based on battery models were reviewed; finally, the factors affecting the accuracy of SOC estimation and possible solutions were analyzed. The summary of this paper provides references for future research. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research and Development of High-Temperature Titanium Alloys for Hypersonic Aircraft CHEN Zhiyong Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 38-45.   Abstract （2043）      PDF（pc） （1510KB）（1085）       Knowledge map    Save High-temperature titanium alloys allow broad application prospects in hypersonic aircraft. They have ideal lightweight and heat-resistant metallic materials, enhancing the performance and reliability of hypersonic aircraft in extreme flight environments, thus achieving higher speeds and longer flight distances. Considering the services of thermal structures in China’s hypersonic aircraft, starting from the characteristics of high-temperature titanium alloys, this paper has reviewed the latest development status of high-temperature titanium alloys domestically and abroad. It focused on introducing China’s independent research, development and application of 550-650 °C high-temperature titanium alloys. To achieve higher operating temperature requirements, the research and development of a new 700-750 °C high-temperature titanium alloy Ti750S was proposed, and the respective application directions and prospects of high-temperature titanium alloys for future hypersonic aircraft were prospected. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Preparation and Electromagnetic Properties of ZIF-67 Derived Carbon Spheres Loaded on Graphene LIU Zhenglin, ZHA Borui, WEI Bo, ZHOU Jintang, TAO Jiaqi, CHENG Zhenyu, LIU Jun, WU Fan Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 120-127.   Abstract （1947）      PDF（pc） （2413KB）（789）       Knowledge map    Save With the arrival of the 5G era, electromagnetic pollution has also become a new public concern, which has already received extensive attention from the social and scientific communities. Thus, it’s significant to develop materials with efficient microwave absorption properties. In this paper, a simple preparation method was used to uniformly load spherical ZIF-67 on graphene nanosheets, and a novel electromagnetic wave absorbing material consisting of twodimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) materials was achieved after high-temperature annealing (spherical ZIF-67 derived carbon spheres loaded on graphene, Co@C/GNs ). Conductivity loss, natural resonance and exchange resonance in the low and middle-frequency bands, as well as polarization loss and eddy current loss in the high-frequency band, can together enhance the effective absorption of electromagnetic waves. Among them, wave absorbers with 5% graphene by mass of ZIF-67 have the best wave absorbing performance, with the minimum reflection loss value of − 31.66 dB at a matching thickness of 2.5 mm and the effective bandwidth up to 5.56 GHz at a matching thickness of 1.5 mm. This work provides an alternative option for the preparation of electromagnetic absorbing composites. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Digital Parallel Battlefield： A Review of Theory and Development Prospects ZHANG Sipei, XU Tianyang, KANG Chuanhua, CI Huipeng, LIU Rui Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 29-39.   Abstract （1918）      PDF（pc） （1035KB）（360）       Knowledge map    Save With the rapid development of information technology, modern warfare is transforming towards digitalisation, networking, and intelligence. As an advanced stage of the digital battlefield, the digital parallel battlefield leverages physical and virtual systems integration to provide innovative solutions for situational awareness, element coordination, and decision optimisation. This paper systematically reviewed the latest research on the digital parallel battlefield, analysing its theoretical foundations, military value, technical architecture, and practical applications. Key challenges within the field were identified, and future development trends were explored. The study highlighted the significant role of the digital parallel battlefield in enhancing joint operational capabilities, optimising command and control efficiency, and innovating military training models. In addition, challenges such as a lack of unified theoretical frameworks, delayed technical standards, and insufficient cross-domain coordination were given. In conclusion, with the continuous integration of artificial intelligence, big data, and other emerging technologies, the digital parallel battlefield will achieve broader applications in intelligence, collaboration, and service-oriented development. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research Progress of Resin Matrix Composites for Air Defense Missiles CHEN Xue, ZHU Longyu, XUE Qinyang, WANG Kexiang, HAN Zhilin, LUO Chuyang Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 76-95.   Abstract （1870）      PDF（pc） （3146KB）（2342）       Knowledge map    Save Lightweight design is a dominant development trend in advanced air defense missile systems. Resin matrix composites, with the advantages of being lightweight, high strength, high-temperature resistant, corrosion-resistant, and designable, play a key role in promoting the lightweight design of missiles. This paper has reviewed the research progress and current applications of thermoset and thermoplastic composites in air defense missiles. It comprehensively provides an overview of the application progress and development prospects of resin matrix composites in typical missile components, offering insights into the future development of these materials. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Optimal Design Method of Complex System Based on Resource Optimization ZHANG Rongfu, WANG Jinqiang, LIU Minxia Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 86-94.   Abstract （1867）      PDF（pc） （991KB）（60）       Knowledge map    Save To solve the resource optimisation problem in the modular design of complex systems, a hybrid optimisation method combining fuzzy C-means clustering, genetic algorithm, simulated annealing, and immune selection mechanism was proposed in this study. This method first used the fuzzy C-means clustering algorithm to analyse the correlation between component functional structures, generating initial module partitions. Then, it optimised the module partitions using an improved genetic algorithm. The integration of simulated annealing significantly enhanced the local search ability of the algorithm. At the same time, the immune selection mechanism maintained population diversity through operations including elite retention, gene exchange, and insertion mutation, further improving the algorithm's global search ability and stability. The results show that the proposed method significantly optimises the cohesion and coupling of modules and can effectively improve the quality and efficiency of modular design. In addition, the process presents an ideal balance between calculation speed and optimisation accuracy, which is particularly suitable for industrial scenarios having high requirements for independence, scalability and cost control. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research Progress of Advanced of High Modulus and Ductile CNT/Al Composites LI Zhiqiang, XU Bin, LIN Nan, WANG Yichong, FAN Genlian, TAN Zhanqiu, ZHANG Di Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 29-37.   Abstract （1765）      PDF（pc） （2305KB）（949）       Knowledge map    Save Carbon nanotube-reinforced aluminium matrix composite (CNT/Al) is an innovative lightweight structural material for aerospace and weapons equipment. Great progress has been made in its preparation and application technology in recent years. This paper has summarized the preparation technologies of CNT/Al composite and their engineering bottleneck. The preparation technology suitable for industrial production that combined flake powder metallurgy with the element alloying method was highlighted. The mechanical properties and the damping capacity at room temperature and high temperature for the large-size CNT/2A12Al composite were introduced. The strengthening and toughening mechanism and the strategies to simultaneously enhance strength and ductility were reviewed, such as CNT intragranular dispersion architecture and heterogeneous grain size architecture. The deformation processing, application technology of large-size CNT/Al composites, and the application prospect and future research focus were also discussed. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Cooperative Deployment Algorithm for Marine Fleet Detection Nodes Based on Constrained Reinforcement Learning DU Junnan, SHUAI Yixian, CHEN Ding, WANG Min, ZHOU Jinpeng Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 95-103.   Abstract （1736）      PDF（pc） （1272KB）（59）       Knowledge map    Save This paper proposed a cooperative deployment algorithm for naval fleet detection nodes based on constrained reinforcement learning to address the coordinated deployment of detection nodes in naval fleet formations. First, the method of dividing grids with regular hexagons was employed to design the grid. The battlefield space was modelled based on the battlefield space feature expression optimisation model of the graph neural network. Then, taking the formation's overall detection range and interception depth as the main optimisation objectives and considering constraints such as formation combat damage, deployment formation, ship orientation, and communication range, an intelligent agent model for the collaborative deployment of detection nodes was produced. Finally, the collaboration deployment intelligent agent model is trained in the air defense combat scenario of the US naval vessel formation. The simulation results show that the fleet deployment positions are optimized by the cooperative deployment algorithm proposed in this paper and the overall interception effectiveness of the fleet is improved by 13.1%. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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From Kill Chain to Kill Web： A Survey on Modeling， Evaluation， and Optimization WANG Chaochen, JIANG Hongru, WANG Buli, XIA Qiaowei, ZHANG Xianchun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 1-8.   Abstract （1723）      PDF（pc） （992KB）（373）       Knowledge map    Save This paper comprehensively and systematically analyzed the theoretical evolution, model construction, effectiveness evaluation, and optimization methodologies of kill chains and webs. First, the fundamental distinctions between kill chains and kill webs were introduced via conceptual comparative analysis. Then, from the perspective of four key modeling challenges: structured information representation, cooperative system optimization, dynamic adaptability, and intelligent decision-making， the construction mechanisms and technological breakthroughs of various models were investigated. Quantitative evaluation methods for key dimensions, including survivability, resilience, and node importance, were summarized. Following this, strategies for dynamic reconstruction optimization and multi-objective conflict resolution were studied. Finally, future development trends of kill chains and kill webs were projected. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Thoughts and Explorations on the Construction of Digital Parallel Battlefield QIAN Xiaochao, WANG Zhihao, LU Zhifeng Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 14-22.   Abstract （1687）      PDF（pc） （1515KB）（363）       Knowledge map    Save The digital parallel battlefield represents a precise mapping from the physical to the digital space, transcending the traditional capability boundaries of simulation and facilitating cross-domain, cross-level, and more efficient applications. Based on the critical requirements for building the digital parallel battlefield, this paper studied overseas and domestic research status. Through comparative analysis of the gaps between current capabilities and actual needs, the paper deeply analysed the current challenges' root causes, which were characterised by “diverse constructions, difficult sharing, and high costs”. In addition, several key technologies were discussed in detail, including the overall architectural design, the multi-branch quick deduction, the counter-design of the blue team with game strategy, the integration of virtual-real parallel systems, the experiment design and comprehensive evaluation, etc. Finally, the paper proposed recommendations for future practical explorations, emphasising directions including “physical-digital synergy, co-evolution, collaborative operations, and sustainable development”. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of In-Situ Al Matrix Composite for Storage Tanks WANG Lei, CHEN Zhe, WANG Haowei Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 112-119.   Abstract （1614）      PDF（pc） （2963KB）（94）       Knowledge map    Save To meet the lightweight requirements of the new generation of aerospace, obtaining the optimal heat treatment process parameter combination of in-situ TiB2/2219 composite for storage tanks to improve its comprehensive mechanical properties further has become an urgent problem. In this study, the effect of solution and ageing process on tensile properties of in-situ TiB2/2219 composite was systematically studied through advanced characterization techniques and analysis of tensile test data at room temperature was conducted. The results show that the compositehas the highest hardness of 108 HV at 535 ℃, 1.5 h solution. Pre-stretch can increase the dislocation density, provide more nucleation sites for θ' phase, improve the nucleation rate, and increase the volume fraction of the precipitated phase during ageing. To promote the formation of atomic clusters, increase the nucleation site of the precipitated phase, and further improve the nucleation efficiency of θ' phase, a two-stage ageing system was designed. After ageing at 100 ℃× 8 h and 160 ℃ ×13 h, the yield strength and tensile strength of the composite increased by 40.5% and 12.5%, respectively, while the fracture strain remained 8.0%. The results have accumulated effective experimental data and thus support the engineering application of in-situ aluminum matrix composites for space storage tanks. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A 3D Modeling Method for Urban Combat Environments Based on 3D Gaussian Splatting Technology CHENG Yuanhang, CHEN Gang, CHEN Zhuo Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 66-72.   Abstract （1590）      PDF（pc） （776KB）（125）       Knowledge map    Save Urban combat is a focal point in intelligent warfare, and constructing high-fidelity 3D models of battlefield environments is critical for enhancing situational awareness. Traditional modelling methods face challenges, including oblique photogrammetry, low reconstruction efficiency and stringent data acquisition requirements. This paper studied the theory and application of 3D Gaussian splash technology using the 3D modelling of the urban combat environment. It outlined two technical concepts for multi-source heterogeneous data integration and object-oriented modelling employing 3DGS as future research directions. First, sparse point clouds were initialised via Structure from Motion (SfM) technology, combined with Gaussian Splatting to optimise scene representation, enabling high-precision point cloud rendering. Second, the proposed method was compared with traditional oblique photogrammetry to validate its advantages in modelling efficiency, memory utilisation, and lighting simulation capabilities. Finally, two technical frameworks were introduced: a multi-source heterogeneous data fusion scheme and a building-and-vegetation object-oriented modelling approach, giving novel solutions for 3D modelling in urban combat environments. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research Progress in Power Materials and Technology for Aerospace SHANG Yanxin, QU Wenjie, REN Xuening, LU Hongbo, DU Wei, LI Li, WU Feng, CHEN Renjie Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 12-28.   Abstract （1583）      PDF（pc） （4146KB）（1482）       Knowledge map    Save The aerospace power subsystem, known as its “energy heart”, is responsible for key tasks such as efficient storage and accurate conversion of electrical energy. Its operational stability affects the smooth operation and overall effectiveness of each subsystem of the spacecraft. The increasing complexity of space missions and the intensification of extreme space environments have led to the need for continuous technological innovation and performance upgrades of power systems. Based on this, in this study, the materials and technologies development trends of solar cells, chemical batteries and other devices were reviewed domestically and abroad from the perspective of extreme environments, including radiation, alternating temperatures and high vacuum. Besides, the key challenges of power devices in the extreme aerospace environment were analyzed, and the potential aerospace mission application prospects were envisioned. This review provides a reference and inspiration for promoting the research and development of advanced aerospace power materials. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Credibility Evaluation of Parallel Simulation： Current Status， Challenges， and Prospects LIU Fei, YU Yang, KUANG Yenian Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (3): 23-28.   Abstract （1535）      PDF（pc） （589KB）（222）       Knowledge map    Save Parallel simulation enables rapid prediction, decision support, and performance evaluation of future evolution via creating a simulation mirror system parallel to the exact system. However, parallel simulation faces challenges such as large scale, complex virtual and real interaction, and multi-level resolution model fusion, which affect its credibility evaluation. This paper discussed the challenges faced by the credibility evaluation of parallel simulation systems and provided recommendations, in order to provide ideas for researching and applying credible evaluations of parallel simulations. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Mechanical Properties of Phenolic Modified Epoxy Resins with Different Structures and Their Influence on the Friction and Wear Properties of Coatings XIAO Jintao, LI Jieqiong, WANG Shushu, SHEN Zhaojun, ZHOU Tiandao, JU Pengfei Air & Space Defense    2024, 7 (6): 128-134.   Abstract （1506）      PDF（pc） （1704KB）（151）       Knowledge map    Save To investigate the mechanical properties of phenolic resin-modified epoxy resin in different structures and their effects on the friction and wear coating properties, and acquire theoretical support for the design of highperformance, long-life bonded solid lubricating coatings, the relationship between crosslinking density and mechanical properties of modified epoxy resin (EP)/boron phenolic resin (FBB) and epoxy resin (EP)/linear phenolic resin (SG) was analyzed using dynamic thermomechanical property testing (DMA) and V-block friction and wear testing. The influence of different crosslinking density resins of the coating was also investigated. The results showed that when the ratio of epoxy resin/phenolic resin increases, the crosslinking density of the resin gradually decreases, while the elastic modulus first increases before it decreases. When the ratio is 5:1, the elastic modulus reaches its maximum, and the wear resistance life is the longest. Linear phenolic (SG) modified epoxy resin (EP) has a lower crosslink density at the maximum elastic modulus, resulting in a longer wear resistance life. A resin system with suitable crosslinking density can significantly improve the wear resistance life of coatings. By synthesizing resin systems with suitable cross-linking density, the wear resistance life of bonded solid lubricating coatings can be considerably enhanced, providing a scientific basis for developing high-performance coatings with longer life. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Scene Generation Technology for Cognitive Deception of Intelligent Flying Vehicles ZHOU Yu, JIA Jun, LI Hao, DU Yihui, QIAO Wenyuan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (4): 9-19.   Abstract （1503）      PDF（pc） （6564KB）（73）       Knowledge map    Save When conducting flight perception and decision-making tasks, such as target detection and recognition, and online route planning, intelligent aircraft encounter key scenarios that affect flight safety, including false and missed target alarms, and obstacle avoidance failures. Furthermore, due to the combination explosion of the state space of the data-driven intelligent model algorithm and the black-box characteristics of the computing logic, it is challenging to discover and identify its cognitive deception scenarios. In this study, the spoofing attack method was applied to generate targeted micro-disturbances in the system input, creating scenarios that pose risks and challenges to intelligent aircraft. The intelligent aircraft system was then constantly trained to test its operational limits, thereby evaluating safety-critical boundary scenarios for flying objects. This method revealed potential vulnerabilities that standard testing methods may not be able to detect. Meanwhile, the deceptive tests of intelligent aircraft in different risk scenarios ensured the safety and performance in the most challenging situations. The generation of these complex scenarios is crucial for enhancing the robustness of autonomous flight systems and preparing them for a broader range of real-world challenges. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）