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Overview of the Development of Key Technologies for Distributed Collaborative Combat in Typical Combat Scenarios TAN Zuohong, WAN Xiaobo, LIU Wei, PAN Tonglin, FAN Jin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 10-16.   Abstract （539）      PDF（pc） （4924KB）（1249）       Knowledge map    Save With the deep integration of artificial intelligence models represented by ChatGPT and DeepSeek in the field of weapon equipment, distributed collaborative combat is revolutionizing future warfare. This paper reviewed the concept of distributed collaborative warfare, systematically elaborating on situational awareness, task planning, battle damage assessment, and data link information transmission systems within its framework. It systematically analyzed the key technologies of three typical combat scenarios: manned/unmanned platform collaboration, unmanned swarm, and air defense and anti-missile. The respective development trends were discussed, providing reference for the research and development of technology and system construction for future warfare. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Review on Intelligent Radar Target Recognition Methods XU Qiang, MA Yuehua, XU Ke, PAN Jun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 1-9.   Abstract （541）      PDF（pc） （1230KB）（736）       Knowledge map    Save Intelligent radar target recognition is a key technology in modern military informatization and civilian high-end equipment. The false target interference and upgraded camouflage techniques in complex electromagnetic environments cause the performance degradation of traditional recognition algorithms, thus prompting the successive proposal of a series of advanced algorithms. Based on expounding the typical characteristics of intelligent radar target recognition, this paper systematically analyzed the constituent elements of recognition frameworks using traditional feature engineering, machine learning, and deep learning. Then, by comparing the characteristics of different methods in feature extraction and performance evaluation, the development trends and challenges of intelligent recognition technology were examined from the perspectives of practical application, large model empowerment, and other dimensions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Analysis of the Development Trends of the Front Air Defense Equipment System of the US Army LI Hangyu, SIMA Ke Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 17-24.   Abstract （325）      PDF（pc） （6543KB）（626）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing emerging threats on future land battlefields, including the increasing spread of low-altitude threats, a rapidly growing number of environmental disturbances, and ineffectiveness of defense systems, the US Army is accelerating the development of battlefield air defense equipment. The development focuses on systematization, networking, and intelligence, aiming to build a multi-layered, flexible, and joint air and missile defense system spanning all domains, to adapt to the complex battlefield environments in the future. This article reviewed the current state of the US Army's front air defense system and equipment, analyzed the main challenges they face, and offered a trend analysis of the system architecture, force grouping, system capabilities, and equipment forms of their future front air defense systems. This study provides insights and a reference for the development of our domestic army's air and missile defense equipment. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Kill Web Construction Based on Collaborative Tactical Knowledge WU Xiangshang, et al Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 123-131.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （1204KB）（514）       Knowledge map    Save In extended-range air-target strike scenarios, conventional kill chain models encounter difficulties in managing the challenges presented by highly dynamic and intensively contested environments. To address this concern, this paper proposes a dynamic kill-web construction methodology grounded in collaborative tactical knowledge. Firstly, the kill web was modelled as a temporally constrained quadruple task-resource allocation graph (S-D-I-T graph), in which the three categories of nodes—S (sensing), D (decision-making), and I (engagement)—must act on the T (target) nodes in a tactically logical sequence. A collaborative tactical knowledge base was then introduced to systematically define task priorities, resource-capability matching rules, and temporal dependencies in common air-target strike scenarios. Finally, a dynamic construction algorithm based on constraint satisfaction and multi-agent negotiation was designed to generate and configure the kill web in realtime, achieving real-time generation and reconfiguration under time-window, resource-capacity, and tactical-logic constraints. Simulation results show that the proposed method significantly outperforms traditional static kill chains and unguided random-allocation strategies in terms of target damage rate, task completion speed, and resilience. This study provides efficient and robust decision support for long-range air-target strike operations. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Comprehensive Review of Key Technologies for Deflectable-Nose Missiles WANG Jianlei, ZHANG Zhipu, KONG Xiaojun, ZHANG Shunjia, GONG Chunlin Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 1-15.   Abstract （387）      PDF（pc） （4742KB）（413）       Knowledge map    Save Conventional air-to-air missiles with aerodynamic control surfaces have limitations in terminal interception against high-speed, highly maneuverable targets. At the same time, the presence of exposed fins also constrains the loading efficiency on fighter jets. As a feasible and efficient control approach, nose deflection control technology has gradually demonstrated considerable engineering potential. It is expected to provide valuable reference information for the development of next-generation missile control technologies. This paper first systematically reviewed the historical development and current research status of nose deflection control. Then, it provided a comprehensive analysis of research endeavors related to aerodynamic characteristics, configuration optimization, dynamic modeling, and control system design, as well as the mechanism design and simulation of nose-deflection-based missiles. Finally, this paper summarized the significant research progress and anticipated the future trends in the development of nose deflection control technology. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Requirements and Characteristics of Airborne Platform Active Defense Missions in Future Air Combat LYU Ruiheng, ZHU Wensheng, ZHAO Hanxi, LI Xiaolong, GAO Sen Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 16-24.   Abstract （190）      PDF（pc） （9617KB）（413）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, ongoing innovation within the military sector across tactics, technological capabilities of military systems, and equipment technologies has resulted in future air combat environments where airborne platforms will confront increasingly significant threats. These threats will be characterized by attributes such as high stealth, high intensity, comprehensive coverage, and multiple layers. As a result, the requirement for active defense capabilities has become increasingly urgent. Various international initiatives have put forward numerous concepts and initiated preliminary technical research. However, practical application in real combat conditions remains a challenge. This article focuses on the active defense mission of airborne platforms in future air combat. Starting with the threats these platforms face, it investigated the key requirements for active defense capabilities, systems, and technologies. Combining these with the latest developments in military equipment technology, this study summarizes the typical characteristics of active defense missions for airborne platforms. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Survey of Foreign Near-Space Defense Equipment Development in 2025 LAI Wenxing, CHEN Tianyu Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 97-104.   Abstract （37）      PDF（pc） （5647KB）（407）       Knowledge map    Save With the maturation and accelerated fielding of hypersonic strike weapon systems worldwide, traditional air and missile defense architectures face the risk of capability negation. The United States, Russia, and other military powers are actively advancing top-level planning, operational concept development, and system acquisition for near-space defense. Leveraging existing missile defense assets, these nations are constructing hypersonic defense architectures, developing novel sensors and interceptors, and seeking to establish segmented, multi-layered defense systems in the near-space domain to fill critical capability gaps. This paper analyzes the current development of foreign near-space defense systems, evaluates U.S. near-space fire interception performance metrics, examines typical U.S. defensive operational processes, and contrasts the divergent development approaches of the United States and Russia in hypersonic defense, offering insights for the construction of indigenous near-space defense capabilities. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Foreign Unmanned Air Defense Equipment Development and Combat in 2025 LI Hangyu, LAI Wenxing Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 153-162.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （8087KB）（406）       Knowledge map    Save With the rapid advancement of intelligent and unmanned military technologies, unmanned air defense systems are exerting a significant impact on the evolution of warfare paradigms, serving as essential equipment for the transformation of future air and space offensive and defensive operations toward non-contact, asymmetric, and zero-casualty engagements. This paper investigates the current development status of unmanned air defense equipment in major military powers. It analyzes the characteristics and disparities in foreign unmanned air defense equipment development, assesses future development trends, and summarizes the military requirements for unmanned air defense operations and equipment capabilities. Based on the evolution patterns of operational styles, typical operational scenarios for unmanned air defense equipment are constructed. Key technologies are proposed with emphasis on unmanned platforms, situational awareness, autonomous decision-making, and interceptor payloads, providing references for the establishment of unmanned air defense equipment system architecture. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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HRRP Data Augmentation Based on Conditional Diffusion Model SU Yalin, JIANG Guotao, ZHANG Tao, MA Jin, WEI Feiming, YU Wenxian Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 91-97.   Abstract （23）      PDF（pc） （725KB）（394）       Knowledge map    Save This paper introduces a data augmentation technique using a conditional diffusion model to tackle issues related to limited samples and cross-domain distribution shifts in High-Resolution Range Profile (HRRP) data. The proposed approach enhanced the traditional diffusion model by incorporating an angle modulation mechanism that processes azimuth and elevation angles. These angular values were mapped to a high-dimensional continuous space using sine-cosine encoding and then used to modulate category embeddings via a linear transformation, thereby strengthening the model's capacity to capture dependencies between viewing angles and target classes. Additionally, a one-dimensional Fréchet Inception Distance (FID) evaluation metric, leveraging a Temporal Convolutional Network (TCN) for feature extraction, was employed to quantitatively assess the distributional similarity between generated and real HRRP data. Experimental results show that the HRRP data generated by the proposed method achieves a significantly lower one-dimensional FID score than produced by conventional conditional diffusion models. Adding generated samples to the actual training dataset increases the average classification accuracy by 8.55 percent point, demonstrating the effectiveness and practical value of the proposed HRRP data augmentation method. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Review of the Global Air and Missile Defense Weapon System Development in 2025 XU Pei, CHEN Tianyu, LI Xingan, LIANG Zhuang Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 135-143.   Abstract （9）      PDF（pc） （8761KB）（365）       Knowledge map    Save In 2025, amid intensifying geopolitical confrontations and the rapid transformation of air and space offensive threats, traditional air and missile defense firepower equipment faces unprecedented penetration challenges. Particularly under combat conditions and system-of-systems empowerment, such equipment is undergoing accelerated evolution and upgrading. This paper reviews the development dynamics and technological trends of global air and missile defense firepower equipment in 2025. Firstly, it analyzes the progress in three domains: air defense, missile defense, and new-quality capabilities： across key nations and regions including the United States, Russia, Europe, and Israel. Secondly, it systematically summarizes the main characteristics in traditional equipment modernization, new-quality force development, and frontier technology exploration. Finally, it provides an assessment of global air and missile defense technological development trends, aiming to offer reference for the future construction of air and space defense capabilities. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Target Recognition Method Based on Multi-Source Information Fusion CONG Xiaoyu, YANG Jiayi, SHAN Shichen, ZUO Qian Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 12-19.   Abstract （75）      PDF（pc） （866KB）（363）       Knowledge map    Save During multi-source information fusion, efficiently combining features from High Resolution Range Profiles (HRRP) and Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) images is challenging due to the difficulty in fusion, limited sample availability, and the open-set recognition problem. To address these issues, a spatial target recognition method based on feature alignment and data augmentation was proposed. Firstly, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was adopted to reduce the dimensionality of HRRP and extract time-frequency features. The Pauli decomposition was then utilised to expand the data of polarised ISAR images. After that, an improved ResNet18 network and a Transformer fusion module were constructed to align and fuse HRRP and ISAR features. Finally, the OpenMax open-set recognition framework was introduced, and the Weibull distribution was used to model class boundaries to achieve discrimination of unknown classes. Experimental results show that the proposed method achieves 90.43% accuracy in closed-set recognition and 91.39% rejection rate for unknown classes in open-set recognition, verifying its effective recognition and generalisation abilities in complex scenarios. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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A Survey of Task-Driven Intelligent Target Recognition Methods in Complex Battlefield Environments LUO Zhijun, WANG Jianrui, YIN Jiawei Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 1-11.   Abstract （9）      PDF（pc） （707KB）（344）       Knowledge map    Save Complex battlefield environments are characterised by diverse target types, intricate task constraints, and highly dynamic environmental conditions, thereby imposing requirements on intelligent target recognition that go beyond conventional optimisation of perceptual accuracy. In these environments, recognition results are not only used to describe target attributes but also directly affect the reliability of task planning and decision-making. However, most current target recognition research mainly concentrates on static scenarios and perception-based metrics, which do not adequately capture the practical significance of recognition results in task execution. To address this gap, a task-driven paradigm for target recognition has gradually emerged in recent years, in which task-related information is explicitly incorporated into model design, training, and evaluation, thereby enabling recognition results to support task deployment and system-level decision-making better. Following this research trend, this paper presents a systematic survey of task-driven intelligent target recognition methods from a methodological perspective. Firstly, the fundamental concepts of task-driven target recognition were analysed, and its key differences from traditional perception-driven approaches were clarified with respect to output representations, optimisation objectives, and system role positioning. Then, from the perspective of task-related information modelling, existing methods were systematically reviewed with respect to semantic and attribute representations, target state and behaviour modelling, and uncertainty and risk representation. After that, task-constraint modelling during training and optimisation, as well as the collaborative interfaces between recognition outputs and task-execution and decision modules, were further discussed. Finally, using the typical demands of complex battlefield environments as a key context, the paper summarized the major challenges in task-driven target recognition, including adapting to dynamic environments, managing unknown targets, ensuring trustworthy uncertainty representation, and coordinating at the system level. It also outlines potential directions for future research. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on the Application of Large Language Model-Based Tactical Voice Command and Control Systems in Combat Environments YE Haibo, YU Ke, NIU Rongbing, LI Siwei Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 98-107.   Abstract （23）      PDF（pc） （921KB）（342）       Knowledge map    Save This paper introduces a voice command-and-control system based on Large Language Models (LLMs), designed to handle the high dynamics, intense conflict, and multi-source, heterogeneous information in modern combat environments. The limitations of traditional 'point-and-click' interfaces and standard voice systems were addressed, which often struggle with noise robustness and limited semantic adaptability. By integrating advanced audio denoising and tactical hot word enhancement, speech recognition accuracy and domain adaptability in noisy conditions were improved. Domain-specific Prompt engineering, data augmentation, and LoRA fine-tuning further enhanced the LLMs’ understanding of non-standard expressions and tactical semantics, enabling end-to-end voice-to-command conversion. Experimental results show that the proposed approach outperforms baseline methods in battlefield noise conditions, giving a dependable, natural, and efficient framework for human-machine collaborative command. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Interception Capability Assessment of Hypersonic Vehicle Defense Systems YU Shuiming, CHAO Tao, MEI Zheng, HUO Ju Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 25-30.   Abstract （232）      PDF（pc） （835KB）（342）       Knowledge map    Save To enhance the operational effectiveness of intercepting hypersonic vehicles, this study evaluates the interception capability of hypersonic vehicle defense systems. An improved Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method was proposed utilizing the grey relational analysis model to assess the interception capability of defense systems from three perspectives: the penetration ability of the vehicle, the detection performance of early-warning radar, and the interception effectiveness of missiles. The validity of the model was verified through a case study. The research results show valuable insights for the design and deployment of defense systems. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Air Combat Target Threat Assessment Method Based on Combined Weighting-ITOPSIS-GRA XU Han, ZHAO Jiahuan, MA Shanbin, OUYANG Yi, WANG Zhuang, JIANG Hongru Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 115-122.   Abstract （7）      PDF（pc） （1280KB）（331）       Knowledge map    Save In the issue of evaluating threats in air combat scenarios, current assessment techniques frequently encounter difficulties in delivering precise results. To mitigate these limitations, this paper concentrates on multi-aircraft group confrontation combat scenarios. It proposed a novel air combat target threat assessment method based on combined weighting, Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), and Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) to calculate the threat level of the target group. Firstly, an improved objective weighting method based on Criteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation (CRITIC) and the order relation analysis method (G1) was employed to determine the objective and subjective weights of threat assessment indicators, respectively. Based on the principle of minimum discriminative information, a combined weighting scheme was used to calculate the comprehensive indicator weights. Secondly, the Improved TOPSIS (ITOPSIS) and GRA were integrated to comprehensively utilise the distance metric and grey relational degree between threat indicators and the positive/negative ideal solutions. Then, the relative closeness of target groups was calculated as the threat assessment result. Finally, a typical simulation case study was designed to validate the effectiveness of the assessment method. Simulation results show that the proposed threat assessment method, based on combined weighting-ITOPSIS-GRA, considers a broader set of factors and yields more reasonable and accurate assessment outcomes. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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System Effectiveness Evaluation Method for Multi-Spacecraft Operational Systems Based on Complex Network Theory NI Yu, XU Yazhou, LUO Yizhe, YU Mengxin, JIN Zhao, FENG Shuo, SHI Yucheng, XU Mingliang Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 132-144.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （1673KB）（324）       Knowledge map    Save To address issues such as insufficient consideration of interrelationships among operational links, imperfect construction of multi-simulation-node evaluation systems, limited sources of assessment data, and significant interference from subjective data, this study introduces an integrated system-of-systems effectiveness evaluation framework that combines complex network theory and multi-agent simulation technology, facilitating a comprehensive analysis and quantitative assessment of dynamic interactions and overall effectiveness in complex systems. Firstly, integrating simulation platforms with physical models produced indicator data for system-level evaluation under specified scenarios and schemes. Secondly, simulation nodes and their corresponding data were mapped into nodes and relationships within a complex network, where corresponding capability matrices were constructed. Finally, within the defined combat scenarios and simulation nodes, effectiveness metrics for each scheme were quantified by incorporating link information derived from complex network analysis and capability matrices for different combat loops, followed by a systematic comparison and analysis of their effectiveness. Experimental results show that the proposed method effectively assesses each scheme's strengths and weaknesses, while also intuitively illustrating how effectiveness evolves over time and highlighting overall trends across various combat loops. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Inversion and Interpretation of Target Electromagnetic Scattering Characteristics Based on Measurement and Computation ZHANG Xiaokun, YAN Tianxu, PENG Guopeng, WANG Long, ZHANG Yixuan, ZHAO Xunwang Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 85-93.   Abstract （152）      PDF（pc） （2739KB）（324）       Knowledge map    Save This paper systematically investigates a measurement-based computational approach for the inversion and interpretation of target electromagnetic scattering characteristics, focusing on the issues of stringent site requirements, high costs, and the limited capacity to reveal the physical mechanisms of target scattering associated with conventional Radar Cross Section (RCS) measurement techniques. First, high-precision electromagnetic near-field data of the target were acquired within a limited distance. Subsequently, the target's far-field scattering characteristics were accurately reconstructed using near-field-to-far-field transformation techniques. Then, the transformed data were processed by a parametric scattering-center extraction algorithm to invert the macroscopic scattering response into a set of attributed scattering-center parameters with precise physical meanings. By comprehensively analyzing the attributed scattering centers as well as the Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) image, the link between“data measurement” and “physical mechanism interpretation ” was established, providing practical support for potential applications such as target shape optimization, recognition algorithm development, electromagnetic characteristic modeling, and professional wargame simulation. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Review of Foreign Air-to-Air Missiles Development in 2025 XIA Xiaojing, TANG Chuchun, YANG Chuang, SANG Chen, HUI Wenzhi Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 105-115.   Abstract （12）      PDF（pc） （8743KB）（314）       Knowledge map    Save In 2025, military powers led by the United States and Russia have continued to advance the upgrade and modernization of in-service air-to-air missiles (AAM) while accelerating the development of next-generation variants, with emphasis on enhancing long-range strike, network-centric coordination, and intelligent combat capabilities. This paper first reviews the latest developments in AAM programs across the United States, Russia, Israel, South Korea and Europe from the perspective of evolving operational scenarios and employment modes, covering missile variant progress, technological breakthroughs, operational testing and validation, and deployment trends. Secondly, detailed analysis is conducted on representative systems including the AIM-260A, AIM-174B, R-77M, R-37M, and Meteor missiles. Finally, development characteristics are summarized from the dimensions of kill chain closure, combat radius extension, platform coordination, and system integration, with prospects on future trends such as intelligent collaboration and cross-domain lethality, aiming to provide references for understanding the evolution patterns of air combat equipment and assessing confrontation paradigms. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Countermeasures of Long-Range Precision Strike Against the Sea Based on Space-Based Imaging Information WANG Yue, SHEN Peizhi, WEN Zhi, SUN Yanli Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 47-52.   Abstract （186）      PDF（pc） （907KB）（294）       Knowledge map    Save The reconnaissance and detection of time-sensitive targets at sea is fundamental to the long-range, accurate strike at sea. The timeliness and accuracy of the target information are critical to the strike’s effectiveness. Given the urgent need for Marine visual support for long-range precision strike, this paper analyzed the limitations of common reconnaissance platforms, including ocean radar stations, outpost ships, and early warning aircraft, in far-sea remote reconnaissance. Then, focusing on the practical application of space-based imaging satellites to remote sea reconnaissance, the constraints existing in their use were systematically reviewed, and countermeasures to guide long-range precision strikes with space-based imaging information from the perspective of technical mechanisms were proposed. This study effectively addresses the problem of reconnaissance and detection of remote maritime time-sensitive targets. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Technologies for Intelligent Reconfiguration of Counter-UAV Swarm Kill-Chain WANG Huaji, SUN Liang, LEI Rongqiang, LI Jie, LIANG Xiao Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 33-40.   Abstract （22）      PDF（pc） （3737KB）（285）       Knowledge map    Save To effectively address the new challenges posed by the rapid closure, dynamic reconfiguration and intelligent autonomy of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) swarm kill chains, and achieve adaptive dynamic construction of counter-UAV swarm kill chains, this paper proposes intelligent kill chain reconfiguration technology. Firstly, the development status of UAV swarm and counter-UAV swarm offensive and defensive operations is reviewed, and the advantages and disadvantages of existing counter-UAV swarm technical means are systematically analyzed. Secondly, starting from solving the problems caused by the significant operational advantages of UAV swarms, such as low detect ability, low cost, distributed decentralization and autonomous intelligence, the necessity of intelligent reconfiguration capability for counter-UAV swarm kill chains is demonstrated. Finally, the concept and connotation of intelligent kill chain reconfiguration are defined, and a technical framework for intelligent kill chain reconfiguration is proposed from the perspective of the full-process closed loop of "detection, positioning, tracking, decision-making, strike and assessment". Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Survey of Foreign Hypersonic Weapons Development in 2025 GE Luqin, ZHANG Cheng, LIU Yulei, CHENG Wanqi, SUN Qian Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 144-152.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （7626KB）（276）       Knowledge map    Save This paper investigates the global development trends of hypersonic weapons in 2025, with a focus on technological exploration, test validation, and operational application of hypersonic weapons by the United States, Russia, and other major nations. Key technological advances are summarized in multi-level test validation and digital twin, overall design, propulsion systems, thermal protection materials and thermal management, as well as high-precision guidance, navigation, and control (GNC). Furthermore, the operational characteristics and development trends of hypersonic weapons are discussed to provide references for future hypersonic defense system construction and technical research. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Design and Configuration Concept of Air Defense Weapon Command and Control Architecture for Edge Computing TIAN Ye, AN Siwei, PI Li, SUN Chengyu, LI Longyue Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 45-52.   Abstract （351）      PDF（pc） （1211KB）（254）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing the issue that traditional command and control (C2) architecture is intricate in satisfying the requirements of modern air defense combat systems, this paper analyzes the functional prerequisites of the air defense weapon C2 system and proposes a three-tier collaborative distributed architecture comprising the "core layer, edge layer, and access layer," developed in accordance with the principles of edge computing. The hardware configuration and selection scheme for the air defense weapon C2 system were designed, and the development requirements for its operating system were proposed, providing innovative ideas and methods for the intelligent upgrading of air defense weapon systems. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Deep Learning-Based Infrared Ship Target Wake Matching and Detection Algorithm CHEN Liangwen, ZHU Yuxin, SHEN Tao, YU Yifan, LING Xiao, SHENG Qinghong Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 80-90.   Abstract （39）      PDF（pc） （4260KB）（253）       Knowledge map    Save This paper proposes a deep learning-based infrared ship-and-wake detection algorithm to address missed and false detections of low-emission, small targets in complex sea-sky backgrounds. The algorithm enhanced the YOLO network by incorporating a dual attention mechanism that suppresses feature maps within the YOLOv8 architecture. In addition, a ship-wake matching module was developed, leveraging more prominent wake features to assist ship detection, effectively reducing false alarms and missed detections of weak and small ships in complex backgrounds. Finally, a ship dataset was constructed for testing and analysis. Results show that the proposed algorithm achieves 98% precision and a high detection speed, demonstrating strong robustness in detecting weak infrared ship targets and significantly enhancing detection performance. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Analysis and Trend Assessment of Foreign Intelligent Airborne Equipment Development in 2025 SANG Chen, SHI Xinyu, CHENG Wei, WEI Liming, TANG Chuchun Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 124-134.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （4713KB）（248）       Knowledge map    Save In 2025, driven by global geopolitical competition and combat imperatives from regional conflicts, foreign intelligent airborne equipment has entered a critical stage characterized by enhanced technological maturity, deepened system-of-systems application, and restructured operational patterns, with intelligentization emerging as a core trend in air combat equipment development. Based on publicly available foreign literature, this paper employs an integrated methodology combining situational analysis, technical survey, and scenario-based validation to conduct research across three dimensions: evolution of operational concepts and patterns, equipment development progress, and typical scenario applications. It analyzes four core evolutionary directions of combat paradigms, systematically reviews domain-specific equipment and technological achievements, and evaluates technological verification and maturity levels in scenarios such as beyond-visual-range (BVR) air combat. On this basis, five development characteristics of foreign intelligent airborne equipment are identified, including a distinct combat-driven orientation. Future development trends are assessed from four aspects: offensive-defensive confrontation, geopolitical competition, and others. The research findings provide important references for understanding the intelligent development trajectory of this domain and conducting relevant research and practice. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Analysis of Foreign Air and Missile Defense Development in 2025 LIU Jie, WANG Chuangwei Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 87-96.   Abstract （35）      PDF（pc） （11336KB）（246）       Knowledge map    Save In 2025, foreign air and missile defense equipment has accelerated its evolution driven by emerging threats and strategic competition, exhibiting notable characteristics of multi-domain integration, intelligent upgrading, and combat-driven iteration. Through system integration, equipment development and modernization, technological innovation, and lessons learned from regional conflicts and exercises, foreign militaries have comprehensively enhanced the operational effectiveness of air and missile defense capabilities. This paper reviews the annual progress of major military powers such as the United States and Russia in three dimensions: defense architecture, air and missile defense equipment, and defense technologies, covering system construction, equipment deployment, technological development, and operational employment. Furthermore, it assesses the development trends in foreign air and missile defense domains, providing support for future defense equipment development. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Analysis of India-Pakistan UAV Offensive-Defensive Patterns and Implications for Counter-UAV Equipment Development ZHANG Weiyi, WU Qiwu, ZHU Li Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 1-7.   Abstract （20）      PDF（pc） （2929KB）（241）       Knowledge map    Save Based on the offensive and defensive employment of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in the India-Pakistan conflict, this paper studies future methodologies for UAV and counter-UAV warfare. Firstly, by reviewing the UAV forces deployed by both sides, it summarizes the tactical methods of cluster-coordinated reconnaissance and strike. Secondly, from the perspective of counter-UAV operations, it systematically analyzes the counter-UAV equipment employed by both sides and summarizes their approaches to constructing integrated counter-UAV systems. Finally, based on conflict experience and referencing the practices of strong adversaries such as the U.S. military in UAV warfare and counter-UAV equipment development, several insights and recommendations are proposed for future UAV operations and counter-UAV system development. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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LLM-Based Intelligent Association Between Protocol Templates and Object Models ZHANG Yusheng, XU Yonghui, ZHOU Yuqi, DU Jiang, WEI Changan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 94-102.   Abstract （269）      PDF（pc） （3512KB）（235）       Knowledge map    Save To bridge the semantic gap resulting from the transmission of external products via heterogeneous communication protocols, in conjunction with the operation of the joint test platform utilizing the built-in standard object model (SDO) subscription-publish mechanism, this paper introduces an intelligent association method and system for protocol template-object models founded on large language models (LLMs). The process took the XML protocol template and interface description model as input, and generated the intermediate representation through structured preprocessing. The local knowledge base was constructed under the retrieval, augmentation, and generation (RAG) framework to uniformly store SDO definitions, historical association pairs, and proprietary corpora. And through the “dual-channel index,” combined with sparse keyword matching and dense semantic vector retrieval, highly recalled candidates for protocol elements and SDO attributes were generated. Subsequently, a lightweight, high-performance large-scale reasoning model was adopted to perform semantic disambiguation and consistency verification on candidate pairs, and the optimal match was output alongside the prompt-word norms and rule constraints. For “strange inputs” such as abbreviations, pinyin, and mixed Chinese-English writing, a multi-agent diversion parsing strategy was introduced, significantly enhancing the robustness against non-standard expressions. The system ultimately automatically generated a standardized XML association relationship list, supporting traceable evidence fragment backlinks and threshold filtering to avoid low-correlation strong matching. The prototype software integrated the full-process modules of file parsing, knowledge retrieval, intelligent matching, and result export. In verifying typical protocol templates and object model scenarios, it demonstrates robust alignment capabilities and engineering availability across languages and naming systems, providing an efficient and scalable semantic mapping path for rapid access to external resources by the joint test platform. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Overview of the Development of Distributed Cross-Domain Collaborative Unmanned Operations Technology WEI Gaole, HE Chenggang, RUAN Kaizhi, YANG Haiming Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (3): 9-17.   Abstract （22）      PDF（pc） （995KB）（233）       Knowledge map    Save As modern warfare evolves toward intelligentization and all-domain operations, unmanned combat technology has transitioned from simple-task applications to core combat missions, and unmanned combat systems have entered a new stage of transformation from centralized platforms to distributed networks composed of cross-domain unmanned nodes. Distributed cross-domain cooperative capabilities have become a decisive factor in reshaping the warfare landscape. This paper reviews the development of distributed cross-domain cooperative unmanned combat technology at home and abroad, analyzes how recent regional conflicts have accelerated technological evolution, and identifies five key characteristics: functional distribution, intelligent decision-making, autonomous coordination, information networking, and cross-domain heterogeneous integration. Four key technologies and models are also analyzed: cooperative control, intelligent perception and information fusion, mission planning and decision control, and cross-domain heterogeneous networking. Finally, future development directions are outlined, including deep human-machine intelligence collaboration, resilient cooperation in highly contested environments, and intelligent game theory with adversarial machine learning. This paper aims to promote the leap of unmanned combat architecture from "physical assembly" to "intelligent fusion", providing reference for gaining the initiative in future military competition. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Physical Adversarial Attack Methods for UAV Remote Sensing Target Detection Based on Diffusion Models XIA Xiaoyan, ZHANG Yu, HU Xikun, ZHONG Ping Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 52-62.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （5073KB）（231）       Knowledge map    Save Although deep neural networks have achieved significant advancements across a range of visual tasks, they continue to be vulnerable to adversarial attacks. Compared to digital-domain attacks, physical-world adversarial attacks pose greater threats. In the context of adversarial attacks on UAV remote-sensing image object detection, it’s essential to maintain stable effectiveness under complex conditions, such as varying viewpoints, distances, and lighting conditions. Optimising attack methods must be fully considered in light of the dynamics and diversity of real-world imaging environments. Although existing physical-domain adversarial attack methods can degrade the performance of object detection models, they often rely solely on pixel-level local texture optimisation, resulting in monotonous adversarial texture patterns and limited adaptability. To address the aforementioned issues, this paper proposed a diffusion model-based physical adversarial attack method. The proposed approach employed a pre-trained diffusion model as the generator, leveraging both image and text priors to guide the generation of adversarial textures. Within a comprehensive physical attack framework, it enabled vehicle camouflage in UAV remote-sensing object-detection tasks. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves high attack success rates and strong cross-model transferability across multiple object detection models, outperforming comparative methods in attack effectiveness and texture pattern diversity. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Cooperative Detection Methods Based on Target Angle Information ZHANG Mengjun, WEI Bingzhuo, OUYANG Yi, WANG Weihua Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 108-114.   Abstract （6）      PDF（pc） （667KB）（230）       Knowledge map    Save A target guidance algorithm is proposed to solve the two-dimensional target information transfer problem of detector in passive detection scenarios. Through target azimuth and angular altitude detected by a single station, the algorithm is effective to guide the other detector to search or track without target distance, which is used to achieve cooperative detection and triangulation localization. Simulation verification demonstrates that the algorithm enables detector to guide other detectors for cooperative detection and complete target distance calculation in passive tracking scenarios, with a guidance success rate exceeding 85% in the simulation experiment. In physical environment validation, all three tests were successful. Besides, the Kalman filter algorithm is used to deal with the detected data, which is valid to remove outlier, smooth the data, and improve success rate of target guidance. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Airspace Management Technology for Maritime Regional Air Defense MIN Huiyi, WANG Guankun, CHEN Wei, YANG Yi, MAO Yi Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 68-79.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （5071KB）（215）       Knowledge map    Save In maritime regional air defense operations, numerous participating forces maneuver frequently with a highly dynamic airspace structure. Existing airspace management methods face difficulties in meeting the requirements for real-time performance, fine-grained control and collaborative decision-making in actual combat. To address this issue, this paper proposes a collaborative airspace management approach for air defense based on digital grids. This approach adopts multi-level three-dimensional airspace grids as the digital foundation, structurally encodes airspace objects and their usage states, and constructs an integrated digital model of space-time-attribute, enabling computable representation and collaborative management of heterogeneous aircraft airspace usage. On this basis, methods for digital airspace generation and adaptive planning are designed, and an airspace conflict detection mechanism based on grid-level matching is proposed. Simulation results demonstrate that under scenarios of 100-500 airspace usage plans, the proposed method improves conflict detection efficiency by 50%-60% compared with traditional geometric calculation methods, significantly reducing computational complexity under multi-task parallel conditions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Calculation Method for Seeker Angle Measurement Deviation in Field Tests Based on Linear Interpolation WANG Wentao, REN Bo, HE Yongpeng, XU Linpeng, MENG Liang, ZHOU Ke Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 111-116.   Abstract （107）      PDF（pc） （776KB）（213）       Knowledge map    Save The evaluation of missile angle measurement deviations (the elevation angle and azimuth angle of the target line-of-sight) is typically conducted in laboratories, where it is impossible to fully simulate the influences of external field environments, including temperature and vibration. To address the issue that traditional laboratory tests fail to actually reflect the external field environment and thus cannot evaluate the performance of seekers accurately, this paper proposes a method for calculating the angle measurement deviation of seekers in external field experiments based on linear interpolation. Focusing on the missile and target equipment data obtained from external field experiments, the research content involved calculating the seeker angle measurement deviation results from these experiments. The method first performed linear interpolation on the data to align their time frames. Secondly, a model of angle measurement deviation was established using the linearly interpolated data within the ground coordinate system. Finally, the spatial angle measurement deviation was obtained, which was the angle between the actual line-of-sight vector of the target and the measured vector of the missile. This method provides a firm reference for the subsequent calculation of seeker angle measurement deviations in missile external field experiments. Additionally, it can be combined with internal field experiments to evaluate the performance of seeker angle measurement jointly. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Uncertainty Quantification Approach for Aerial Target Recognition Based on Hierarchical Bayesian Models MA Yonglin, LI Hao, XIONG Wei, LI Lingzhi, TANG Jingmian Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 20-27.   Abstract （66）      PDF（pc） （1692KB）（206）       Knowledge map    Save This paper proposes a recognition framework based on a hierarchical Bayesian model to address the challenges associated with fragmented prior knowledge and the absence of uncertainty quantification in decision-making processes for aerial target recognition within complex electromagnetic environments. By developing a three-tiered hierarchical structure encompassing "measurement noise-individual characteristics-class commonality", the intra-class physical variability of target Radar Cross Section (RCS) and sensor random noise were explicitly modelled as probability distributions, representing a novel contribution. Posterior inference was performed using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods, simultaneously outputting target-class probabilities with confidence intervals. Simulation results show that under harsh observation conditions at 5dB SNR, the recognition accuracy reaches 78%, improving by 6% to 10% over Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Naive Bayes classifiers. In small-sample scenarios (5 training samples per class), the accuracy advantage increases to approximately 13%. The 95% confidence interval coverage rate exceeds 88%, validating the effectiveness of uncertainty quantification. The proposed method provides a practical pathway to robust target recognition within complex battlefield environments characterized by "small-sample + high-noise" conditions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Development Status and Prospect of Intelligent Air Defense Operations Technology WANG Shuobo, SONG Dian, ZHAI Guohua Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (3): 18-25.   Abstract （24）      PDF（pc） （560KB）（200）       Knowledge map    Save New aerial strike weapons such as unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms, loitering munitions, and hypersonic weapons have spawned emerging air-space threats featuring full-domain penetration, low cost, saturation strikes and high intelligence. Traditional air defense systems can no longer fully satisfy the requirements of modern combat, making the intelligent transformation of air defense an irresistible trend. This paper first systematically reviews the development background and technological evolution of intelligent air defense operations. With the closed-loop Observe-Orient-Decide-Act (OODA) cycle as the core logical clue, it analyzes the enabling mechanisms of artificial intelligence in all links covering situational awareness, intelligence analysis, command decision-making, fire control and damage assessment. Second, foundational supporting technologies including chips, big data engineering and edge computing are elaborated. Combined with the latest field and operational progress of typical projects: the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2), Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS), Palantir, Skyborg and X-62A, as well as Israel's Golden Dome Air Defense System, this paper carries out an in-depth comparative analysis on intelligent air defense systems across multiple countries. Finally, it discusses core bottlenecks constraining current intelligent air defense development, including system reliability, autonomous capability, practical combat applicability and architectural resilience, and puts forward objective judgments on developmental trends. Intelligent air defense is evolving at an accelerated pace from single-platform intelligence to full-domain systematic intelligence, distributed collaborative operation, integrated soft and hard kill effects and in-depth air-space convergence. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Integrated Management Strategies for Reconnaissance-Jamming-Communication Systems YANG Gewen, JIANG Guotao, YANG Jiayi, LI Min, LIN Qianqiang Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 28-35.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （1940KB）（199）       Knowledge map    Save To address the challenges of information warfare in complex electromagnetic environments, this paper proposes a Reconnaissance-Jamming-Communication (R-J-C) integrated system and constructs a dynamic intelligent management architecture and strategy. Based on the theory of Electromagnetic Manoeuvre Warfare (EMW), an integrated management framework comprising the command-control, perception, countermeasure, and communication subsystems was established. Moreover, management strategies with a global architecture, intelligent decision-making, and rapid reconfiguration capabilities were designed, and the comprehensive management of the electromagnetic spectrum and the cooperative countermeasures process were validated through a game-theoretic integrated cognition system. In summary, the R-J-C management strategies provide a significant academic reference for enhancing the dynamic adaptability and multi-domain coordination capabilities of integrated electromagnetic technologies. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Principle and Errors Analysis of Single Pulse Amplitude Comparison Direction Finding System LIU Yang, WANG Weiting, LIU Kaiyuan Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (5): 91-97.   Abstract （165）      PDF（pc） （1031KB）（199）       Knowledge map    Save Amplitude-comparison direction finding is a widely used direction-finding technology in electronic warfare. However, due to its inherent direction-finding principles, the amplitude-comparison direction-finding systems inevitably exhibit random and systematic errors. To improve the accuracy of direction-finding systems, this paper analyzed the principles of mono-pulse amplitude-comparison direction-finding systems. Through theoretical study, the influencing variables at the system output end were identified. A comparison was made between the angle-of-arrival resolution in dual-channel and quad-channel amplitude-comparison direction-finding systems. After that, systematic errors under four conditions were investigated, including channel imbalance, beam configuration, beam width, and voltage amplification. The validity of these analyses was verified through simulations, providing theoretical references for the design and improvement of related equipment. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Review of Typical Air Combat Cases in 2025 ZHOU Junzhong, ZHANG Chaofei, SUN Gonghao, TIAN Keyuan, YANG Yi Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 116-123.   Abstract （0）      PDF（pc） （3341KB）（188）       Knowledge map    Save The 2025 aerial combat engagements, exemplified by the India-Pakistan, Iran-Israel, and Thailand-Cambodia conflicts, demonstrate the evolutionary trajectory and victory mechanisms of modern air combat. This paper systematically analyzes these cases across four dimensions: operational context, conflict progression, technological characteristics, and tactical implications. The India-Pakistan air combat reveals that system-of-systems integration capabilities have surpassed individual platform performance as the primary determinant of air combat outcomes, with electromagnetic spectrum superiority emerging as the new commanding height. Meanwhile, the Iran-Israel and Thailand-Cambodia conflicts illustrate that technological disparities can create a battlefield of unilateral transparency, where disadvantaged forces employing asymmetric countermeasures can substantially increase adversaries' operational costs. Future air power development must seek a balance aligned with strategic needs among pursuing cutting-edge breakthroughs, reinforcing system-of-systems integration, maintaining parity between offense and defense, and developing low-cost asymmetric capabilities. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Robustness of Radar Intelligent Recognition Models Under Adversarial Samples Attacks SHEN Tong, CHEN Jingxian, ZHONG Ping Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (1): 46-51.   Abstract （61）      PDF（pc） （719KB）（188）       Knowledge map    Save Addressing the problem of insufficient robustness of the intelligent recognition model of radar High Resolution Range Profile (HRRP) under adversarial sample attacks, a lightweight enhancement method was proposed in this study. Firstly, a comprehensive analysis was conducted using the Fast Gradient Sign Method (FGSM), Projected Gradient Descent (PGD), and a black-box migration attack to assess the vulnerability of the lightweight Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). Secondly, a cascaded defense strategy of “fast adversarial training + input denoising auto encoder + post-anomaly detection”was established. Finally, countermeasure experiments were carried out using three types of air targets and 6,000 sets of measured samples. The results show that this strategy can reduce the attack success rate to 9.2%, sacrificing only 2.1 percentage point of the cleaning accuracy, and increasing inference delay by less than 20%. It achieves a stable balance among model size, real-time performance, and robustness, providing a practical solution for the anti-interference design in radar-intelligent recognition systems. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Research on Penetration Games of UAV Swarms Based on the Artificial Potential Field Method WANG Ruichang, SHI Chen, ZHANG Ke, HU Weijun, MA Xianlong Air & Space Defense    2026, 9 (2): 8-17.   Abstract （36）      PDF（pc） （2805KB）（167）       Knowledge map    Save Targeting the challenges of high-dimensional continuous decision non-convergence, low exploration efficiency, and insufficient policy robustness in multi-to-multi red-blue quadrotor swarm zero-sum penetration games within three-dimensional airspace, this paper proposes a Multi-Agent Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (MADDPG) solution framework integrating artificial potential field priors with opponent strategy prediction. First, the three-degree-of-freedom UAV kinematics are embedded into a complete-information differential game, designing a "mission-threat-cooperation" three-tier reward structure, and introducing differentiable potential field energy to transform sparse terminal rewards into dense gradient signals, achieving explicit representation of the "seeking-advantage-avoiding-disadvantage" prior. Second, a potential field-guided hybrid exploration mechanism is constructed, online modulating Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process (OU) noise using potential energy directions, and offline smoothing target Q-values with potential field regularization, improving sample utilization and suppressing overestimation. Furthermore, a lightweight opponent strategy predictor is integrated, introducing a meta-game term into the Actor gradient, enabling red-team policy updates to simultaneously minimize opponent expected payoffs, proactively disrupting enemy decision consistency and accelerating convergence to Nash equilibrium. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves stable win rates exceeding 90% in 2v2 and 4v4 dense confrontations, systematically induces blue team to generate redundant accelerations and energy dissipation, continuously creates spatial-temporal gaps to complete collision-free penetration, significantly outperforming MADDPG without prediction, validating the framework's scalability, real-time performance, and robustness in multi-to-multi zero-sum games. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Occluded SAR Target Recognition Based on Multi-View Mutual Learning Network REN Haohao, CUI Shan, JIANG Xinyu, LIANG Shuyi, ZHOU Yun Air & Space Defense    2025, 8 (6): 25-34.   Abstract （380）      PDF（pc） （7845KB）（160）       Knowledge map    Save For the problem of SAR target recognition in occluded scenarios, this paper proposes a novel method called the multi-view mutual learning network. The proposed method is a mutual learning framework consisting of a multi-view complementary feature learning network and a recognition network, which aims to improve the recognition model's feature extraction ability through knowledge interaction at the feature level. Specifically, to enhance the recognition network's feature extraction ability, this study developed an attribute-scattering-center-guided hierarchical feature extraction method. In view of the implementation challenges with target features in occluded scenarios, a multi-view complementary learning method was employed to comprehensively characterize target features by leveraging complementary features across different SAR images at adjacent azimuth angles. Contrastive experimental results on the MSTAR dataset show that the proposed method performs well across varying levels of occlusion. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）